Bush-fruits; a horticultural monograph of raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, currants, gooseberries, and other shrub-like fruits

Front matter

UMASS/AMHERST

31EDtfe0D53D0mD

,^ARY

Chapter I „^^^^ Pages

Introductory Discussion 1-42

The location, 3— The laud, 5— Fertilizers, 6— Suggestions on planting, 7— Management of the land, 12 — Tillage tools, 14— Pruning, 16— Winter killing, 19 — Propagation, 25— Thinning the fruit, 27— Effect of spraying on pollination, 27— Forcing raspberries and blackberries, 28— Suggestions on picking, 29— Packages and marketing, 32— Remarks on crossing berries, 36.

CHAPTER II The Red Raspberries 43-60

Soil, 43— Location, 44— Fertilizers, 45— Propagation, 45— Planting, 46— Pollination, 48 -Tillage, 49— Pruning, 49— Autumn fruiting, 52— Harvesting and marketing, 53— Uses, 54— Duration of plantations, 55 — Hardiness, 57— Yields 58— Normal profits, 58— Note on the hybrid reds, 59.

CHAPTER III Black Raspberries 61-105

Soil for black-caps, 61— Location, 62 — Fertilizers, 63— Propagation, 65 — Planting, 67— Tillage, 69— Pruning, 70— Harvesting, 74— Methods of drying, 77 (drying out of doors, drying under glass, drying with evaporators)— Marketing, 82— The evaporated raspberry industry, 83— Duration of plantations, 99— Clearing the ground, 99— Hardiness of black-caps, 100-Yields, 101-Usual profits, 103.

Ox)

X CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV PAGES The Blackberries 106-131

Soil, 106— Fertilizers, 107— Propagation of the blackberry, 108— Planting, 112— Tillage and mulching, 115— Pruning, 117— Harvesting and marketing, 119— Uses, 120— Duration of plantations, 123— Killing the plants, 124— Hardiness, 125- Yield, 125- Profits, 127.

CHAPTER V The Dewberries 132-145

Soil for dewberries, 135— Location, 137— Fertilizers, 138— Propagation, 138-Planting, 139-Tillage, 141-Pruning and training, 141 — Harvesting and marketing, 143— Duration of plantations, 143 — Killing out the patch, 144— Hardiness, 144— Yield of dewberries, 145— Probable profits, 145.

CHAPTER VI Miscellaneous Brambles 146-156

The oriental raspberries, 146 (the mayberry, the strawberry-raspberry, the wineberry, the Chinese raspberry) — Ornamental species, 150 (Huhiis odoratiis, R. parviflorus, B. cratcegifolius, B. arcticus, B. phcenicolasius, B. spectabilis, B. laciniatus, double white and pink brambles).

CHAPTER VII Varieties of Raspberries 157-218

(I) Black raspberries, 158— Recommended varieties of blackcaps, 176— (II) The purple-cane raspberi'ies, 177— Recommended varieties, 184— (HI) The American red raspberries, 184— History and future of the red raspberries, 186— Varieties, 192— Recommended varieties, 199- (IV) The European red raspberries, 199— Recommended varieties, 212— (V) Unclassified varieties, 212 — Recommended varieties, 218.

CHAPTER VIII Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 219-250

A. The blackberries: History and future of the blackberry, 221- (I) The long-cluster blackberries, 226- (11) The short-cluster blackberries, 232- (HI) The leafy-cluster

CONTENTS Xi

blackberries, 235— (IV) The white blackberries, 237— (V) pages Tlie loose-cluster blackberries, 238— (VI) The sand blackberry, 240— Recommended varieties of blackberries, 240. B. The dewberries: (VII) The northern dewberries, 244— (VIII) The southern dewberries, 24G-(IX) The western dewberries, 247— Recommended varieties of dewberries, 250.

The Botany of the Groselles 443-484

Part IV MISCELLANEOUS TYPES CHAPTER XIX

Other Species of Bush-Fruits 485-512

Buffalo berry, 485— The goumi, 488— Huckleberries, 491 — Juneberries, 501 — The tree cranberry, 506— The barberry, 508- The sand cherry, 510.

APPENDIX American Books on Bush -Fruits 513-515

INDEX (page 517)

Chapter I

It is but reasonable to suppose that most of those into whose hands this book may fall are already interested in the cultivation of bush -fruits, and need no urging to a further consideration of their merits. Yet, should there be a reader who argues that it is cheaper and easier to buy than to grow fruit for the family, he ought, here and now, to be convinced of the error of his ways. If he is a farmer, he cannot afford to do without an abundance of fresh fruit the season through, for the ease and cheapness with which it can be grown, and its inestimable value as an aid to the health and attractiveness of the home, make it one of the first necessities of the household. Moreover, the day is past in most sections of the country when any farmer can respect himself and allow his wife

2 BUSH-FELITS

or other members of the family to forage the fences, tramp through the woods and over the fields and hills, for a few poor berries which, by any method of reckoning, have cost many times their value at highest retail prices. If, on the other hand, the disinterested reader is a professional or business man, confined in a store, office, class-room or study, how better can he secure the recreation and exercise which he so much needs than in the care of a little home -garden, in which our friends, the bush -fruits, occupy a share of attention? Indeed, he may count himself most fortunate if he can possess a garden of his own, for then every plant becomes in a certain sense a companion and a friend. Fruit which has been watched and tended from the opening bud to its ripening glow, acquires a flavor and piquancy all its own, which the product of the grocer's stand can never equal.

The question of whether it is wise to grow bush-fruits for home use is easily answered in the affirmative. The question as to whether it will pay to plant them for market depends upon many things, chief of which are the facilities for gathering and marketing. Whoever attempts to grow even a small patch of berries for market, if located at some distance from a village or town of some size, soon realizes that his chief difficulty is not in growing the fruit but in getting it picked. Plenty of help may seem to be available, and many persons may be offering their services, but few people who have not had experience know what it means to pick berries

THE PICKING PROBLEM 3

all day under a scorching July sun. Not many have sufficient perseverance to do this unless practically compelled to do so. This is especially true when the chief dependence must be placed on women, w^ho are unaccustomed to outdoor work, so that between the real and the feigned cases of illness the grower finds his force growing smaller and smaller, with berries wasting on the bushes. It is the custom with most growers to protect themselves by paying the full price for picking only to those who remain throughout the season, "but even this precaution cannot wholly' obviate the difficulty. Near towns of considerable size, this trouble largely disappears, and new hands can be had to replace those who drop out. The expense and trouble of marketing small fruits at a considerable distance from home is also a serious objection in manj' regions, adding materially to the cost of the product, and rendering it less attractive in market. One line of berry growing, however, is open to the farmer, independent of the proximity to pickers and markets ; that is the growing of raspberries for evaporating, which will be more fully treated under the chapter on raspberries.

THE LOCATION *

The immediate location or slope of the land may affect in great measure the success of a crop. Most

*In the following discussions of the care and treatment of the bnsh-fruit plantation, only general and summary statements can be made. For more thorough consideration of some of these subjects, the reader is referred to Bailey's "Principles of Fruit-Growing."

4 BUSR-FRUITS

bush -fruits naturally thrive best in cool mountainous or hilly localities, hence a cool northern exposure is to be preferred. Throughout a large i^art of the interior country more injury to the plants comes from the heat of the sun in summer than from excessive cold in the Avinter. Instances have occurred where plants in a protected basin have escaped injury during the winter only to have the fruit scald and dry up in summer. The difficulty of overcoming the summer heat is especially great in the Southern states and drj- portions of the West. Indeed in very many of these localities these fruits cannot be profitably grown at all in field culture. Blackberries succeed much better in the far South than raspberries, while red raspberries endure better than blacks. On the Plains, black -caps thrive better than either reds or blackberries. It is found much more difficult to propagate the black -caps in the Gulf states than at the North, and it can be successfully done only in partially shaded locations. The fruit is also said to diy up on the bushes worse than that of the reds. Red raspberries, blackberries and currants can be made to succeed fairly well in proximity to trees, where thej- get the benefit of partial shade.

In this connection a word concern ing wind-breaks may not be out of place, for in mau}^ localities they possess a decided value in protecting fruit plantations. Their usefulness is not confined to protection from cold. In many regions their most important service consists in lessening the evaporation of

LAND FOB BUSH-FBUITS 5

moisture from soil and plants. This is particularly true in those portions of the West which are subject to drj'ing winds in both summer and winter.

THE LAND

Land which will yield profitable returns in bush-fruits can be found almost everywhere, since these fruits are not fastidious in their demands. The one thing which they insist on is that the land shall not be wet and heav}-. It should be deep and porous, however, so that it may withstand drought. Strong clay loam and sandy loam undoubtedly give the most universal satisfaction, although experience has shown that bush-fruits can be suecessfullj- grown on almost any soil which is not wet and sour. In general, the stronger soils are better adapted to varieties of only moderately vigorous growth, while the thinner and lighter soils are better suited to more rampant growers. Red raspberries and blackberries succeed well on comparatively light soil, provided they retain moisture, while dewberries thrive on very light sand, and currants and gooseberries are at home even in heavj' clay.

Sod land should generally be avoided, if possible. It is inconvenient to furrow and plant, and more or less trouble will arise from the growth of grass. It is more difficult for the plants to become firmly rooted, and they are much more liable to suffer from drought than if planted in well subdued soil.

Thorough preparation of the land previous to planting is a matter of the utmost importance. No amount of after care can atone for neglect in this particular. Land which has been thoroughly worked for one or two seasons previous to planting is always to be preferred. Subsoiling will prove advantageous in many cases, if the substratum is hard and impervious. This is particularly^ to be recommended in regions subject to drought. It should be done the fall before planting, or even sooner, in order that the loosened subsoil may become saturated and somewhat compact. Plantings immediately following spring subsoiling may suffer more from drought than those on land not subsoiled, because of the more rapid drying out of the recently loosened soil. For the same reason, fall plowing is to be preferred to spring plowing in dry sections of the country. The essential thing is that the soil at the time of planting shall be moist, friable and thoroughly pulverized as deep as possible, so that the roots shall find firm, moist, well -fined feeding ground.

Soil which is uniformlj' fertile by previous high culture and manuring, is always to be preferred to a neglected soil with heavy fertilizing immediately at the time of planting.

Probabl}' no other fertilizer is so often used and recommended as stable manure, and, in most cases, it gives very satisfactory- results. The only caution needed is to avoid its use on very strong, moist soils, where it might cause excessive growth. The best time to apply it is during the fall or early winter,

FEBTILIZERS 7

for the reason that if applied in spring a large proportion of it becomes available only toward the latter part of the season, thus indncing a late fall growth, which is liable to snffer during the following winter. Since all fruits require liberal amounts of potash to insure their best development, wood ashes, cotton -seed hull ashes or muriate of potash form a useful supplement to stable manure. If commercial fertilizers are to be depended on altogether, ground bone and muriate of potash form a verj- satisfactory combination. Dried blood, if used in amounts not to exceed 400 pounds per acre, has given good results in some parts of the country. This, being a nitrogenous fertilizer, should be used only in limited quantities to supplement other materials containing little or no nitrogen. For a slow- acting fertilizer furnishing phosphoric acid, Thomas slag is being more or less recommended. It should be remembered, however, that of the three great fertilizing elements, it contains only phosphoric acid, and this in a form only slowly available, so that it should be used only in connection with other materials. It is likely to prove better adapted to the needs of the more permanent orchard fruits than to the small fruits.

SUGGESTIONS OX PLANTING

There are good arguments in favor of either spring or fall planting. The chief advantages of fall planting are that it can be done with less haste, and when the ground is in good condition. If a mulch of coarse manure or of earth is placed over the crown, the plant will usually pass the winter safely, and be in a position to begin growth at once in the spring, without loss of time. Unless spring planting is done early, before growth begins, the check received is likely to seriously impede the season's growth. Moreover, a plant set in early fall is able to repair the damage to its root system, in a measure, before the season of growth the following spring, for root growth may go on to some extent in cool weather, when the upper part of the plant is dormant. On the other hand, early spring planting does away with the extra expense of covering and uncovering the plants, and leaves the soil in good, mellow condition for work during the summer. It is the best method for black- caps and dewberries propagated by tips, and will usually be found most satisfactory for all kinds, if the work is done properly and in season.

For increasing a stock on one's own grounds, young shoots of the present year's growth, of red raspberries or blackberries, may be used with excellent results, transplanting them like cabbage plants, any time after they are four inches high. Cut off the tops if they are much higher than this, and by fall they will be strongly established and well on their way toward a profitable bearing plant. All plants, particularly of red raspberries and blackberries, should be carefully lifted, to secure as much of the root system as possible. If merely pulled up, the plant will usually break at the connection with the root from which it sprung, leaving only a straight stub, poorly equipped for growth.

The common practice is to plant bush -fruits in rows six to eight feet apart, with plants two to three feet apart iu the row, j'et it is hy no means certain that this is the most profitable mode. Many of the best growers prefer to set in cheek rows, with plants five to seven feet apart each way, thus keeping them entirely in hills, and doing nearh- all of the work of cultivation with a horse. This not only reduces the cost of cultivation, but secures a finer grade of fruit, rendering it a particularly satisfactory- plan for discriminating markets. In regions of deficient rainfall, more space must be allotted to each plant, in order to insure it a sufficient supply of moisture. The hill method of planting would seem, therefore, to be well adapted to those regions, while high-priced lands in moist climates, or under irrigation, may yield a greater return bj- the closer hedge-row planting. The suckers, which spring up in such great profusion in old plantations of red raspberries or blackberries, are generally more easily controlled by planting in check rows.

The methods of planting are simple. The previous soil preparation has already- been discussed, and if this has received attention, it will be easy to put the soil in proper condition to receive the plants. In this connection a b'it of the author's experience may be interesting, if not profitable. As a j'oung countryschool teacher, he decided to make his fortune by embarking in the business of evaporating fruit. As an aid to that end, an acre of black raspberries was to be planted. The order was placed, and very early in spring, while the ground was still cold and wet, there appeared at the express office a huge box, of which he stood considerably in awe, as well as of the charges demanded thereon. What to do with these plants was then the question, for heeling -in was jQt to him an unlearned mystery. A man was hired to plow the ground, which was covered with at least a partial sod. Without waiting for the harrowing to begin, others were set at work with hoes, making little holes and setting the plants in this most uncongenial home. It is needless to say that this field yielded little profit, except in high-priced experience.

The care of young plants when received from the nurserj^man is an important matter, for if ordered from a distance it will seldom be convenient to plant them at once. The bundle should be unpacked as soon as possible, the bunches loosened enough so that all the roots may come in contact with earth, and heeled -in on the north side of a building or in a cool cellar, in moist earth. This is done by simply throwing out a shallow trench, with one side slanting, laying the plants against this side and covering the roots with earth, pressing it closely about them. Tier after tier may be packed in this way. Plants so treated will remain, in a cool place, with perfect safety for some time, and may even be benefited by it. If at all dry when received, dousing the roots in water or thin mud before heeling -in is advisable.

After the land is well fitted, if the plants are to be set in check rows the field should be marked one waj^ and then furrows the desired distance apart plowed in the other direction, thus enabling the workmen to quickly place the plants at the intersection of the

DEEP AXD SHALLOW PLANTING H

mark and the furrow. It may aid in plowing a straight furrow to first mark both ways with a marker and follow one set of these with the plow, but by using stakes and ranging with objects in the fields bej'ond, a good driver can plow them very straight without marks.

Man}' successful growers of long experience recommend deep planting of all bush -fruits, urging that plants set deep are better able to withstand drought, and to stand up better. In that case the furrows are made rather deep, but the plants are onh* moderately covered when set, allowing the balance to be filled in by subsequent cultivation, after the shoots are well started. A word of caution is needed in regard to deep planting, especially with ^'tips." Undoubtedly in some soils and locations it gives better results, but if the subsoil is heavy and hard, the plants will lose far more than they gain. Experiments at the Nebraska Experiment Station have uniformly' given better results from shallow planting of black raspberries, notwithstanding that in this section drought is the worst enemy. The stand of plants has been almost a failure and the after -growth poor with deep planting, while adjoining rows planted shallow have given fair results. This is in rich, mellow soil, but underlaid with a rather heavy subsoil.

In mellow ground the plants are quickly set by drawing the earth about them with the hands and firming it with the hands or feet, leaving the balance of the furrow to be filled in with a hoe or by subsequent cultivation. When two or three are planting

together, one should carry the plants in water and drop them just in advance of those who are setting. He should never be allowed to get ahead of the planters, for every exposure to sun and wind, no matter how brief, lessens the vitality of the plant.

MANAGEMENT OF THE LAND

Some return from the land may be obtained the first 3'ear by planting a hoed crop between the rows, although it is an open question whether in the end anything is gained I)}' the practice. Low -growing crops, like potatoes or cabbage, are commonly recommended, though it is quite possible that in the West corn would be preferable, owing to the protection which it affords against drying winds.

Cultivation during the first year does not differ from that of any other hoed crop. Frequent stirring of the soil, to keep down weeds and to preserve a loose mulch on the surface, thereby reserving all the moisture and food supply which the land affords for the exclusive use of the plants, is the kej-note of it all. Here, as in everything else, the better the cultivation the better the growth.

Each succeeding spring, tillage should begin early, with any good implement which will loosen the soil thoroughly and leave the ground level. Hoe about the plants and get the whole surface of the ground in good, mellow tilth. If this is done early it is not a serious task, but if neglected until the ground is hard and the weeds well started, it is difficult and expen-

MULCHING 13

sive. A shovel or spade can sometimes be used to good advantage in hedge -row phmting to turn the soil and help to put it in good condition. Some growers use a plow, but this has the objection that it leaves the land in ridges. Most writers recommend that tillage should cease by the middle or last of August, in order to give the plants opportunity' to ripen their wood before winter, yet there are men of wide experience, whose opinions must carry much weight, who believe that tillage should continue through the entire season, or at least up to the time of the first frost. It is a point still open to discussion, and one upon which careful experiments are needed. The locality and season doubtless have much to do in determining which is the wiser course to pursue. Continuous cultivation seems to be good in Nebraska.

The practicability of mulching to replace tillage is a perennial question. In the home garden, where tillage is often difficult, it is sometimes the most satisfactory method of treating a small plat, if mulching material can be readily obtained. It is generallj^ conceded, however, that no other mulch is so practicable as that formed by a layer of mellow and frequently stirred soil at the surface of the ground. The chief objections to mulching are so concisely summed up by E. A. Hallett, of Galena, 111., that I take the liberty to quote them here as reported in the transactions of the Iowa Horticultural Society for 1883:

1. "It is a tremendous job to apply a heavy mulch to six acres." 2. '4t is very expensive to obtain material for the mulch." 3. "Mulching necessarily causes the roots to run near the surface. In times of drought the top is the first to suffer."

On rich soils, where moisture is abundant, continued cultivation may induce a too rampant growth of wood. In such cases cultivation is sometimes abandoned after the second year. The ground maj- be then seeded to clover, which is cut about the time the fruit begins to ripen, and left on the ground for a mulch. Another practice is to grow the clover on a separate piece of land, then cut it and scatter it along the row, but to continue to till the spaces between the rows.

TILLAGE TOOLS

Very few special tools are needed for the successful care of the bush-fruits. The first and most important implement is a cultivator, and for this, any kind w^hich will thoroughly loosen the soil and leave it comparatively level will serve the purpose. It is important that it shall be capable of doing good work when widely spread, for with full grown bushes it is impossible to work close to the roots, except with a wide tool, the wings of which can run under the branches. For suckering varieties, it is a decided advantage to have teeth which are square on the end, instead of pointed, as usually made. Square* pointed teeth will cut off the suckers below the- surface of the ground, while ordinary kinds dodge them to a great extent. They are equally useful in cutting off Canada thistles or other deep-rooting weeds, which often escape.

TILLAGE TOOLS 15

A cultivator constructed on this principle has been in almost constant use on the farm of J. H. Hale, South Glastonbury, Conn., for a number of j-ears, and has given complete satisfaction. That particular make is practicalh' the same as the old-fashioned corn cultivator with diamond -shaped, reversible teeth, except that on one end the teeth are square instead of pointed.

In soil which is free from stones, knives or cutting blades of steel can be made by a blacksmith and attached to an ordinary cultivator in such a waj' that they will follow and either cut or pull out everything left by the teeth. Such a device is used by E. T. Hartley, of Lincoln, Nebraska, for cutting off plum sprouts. Mr. Hartley' also uses a larger and longer knife attached behind a disk harrow for use in orchard cultivation, which has given excellent satisfaction. For use on our grounds at the Nebraska Experiment Station, we have a knife attached to the Iron Age harrow -tooth cultivator. This we find to be very useful.

In mellow soil a scuffle hoe is a most useful implement for working among plants which have become large and spreading, particularly if grown in hedge rows, so that considerable hoeing needs to be done. The Crescent scuffle hoe answers this purpose admirably, or, if the materials are at hand, one can be made by riveting the outer tines of an old fork to a piece of an old bush -scythe, as shown in Fig. 1.*

In this connection, two devices for the horse which

*Other patterns of useful hand tools are illustrated in "Garden-Making."

does the cultivating should be mentioned, one of which he will appreciate and one of which he will not. This latter is a wire muzzle, in the shape of a basket, which slips over his nose and buckles into the bit rings. This maj- look like taking an unfair advantage of our faithful coworker, but it will prevent his being scolded and jerked when he admires an exceptionall}' fine cluster of fruit. He Avill also keep his position in the row and do his work better if relieved of the extra task of picking berries and nipping shoots at the same time. The other device is a leather apron to be worn on his breast. This will save him many an ugly scratch and, in a measure, offset the loss of fruit which the muzzle occasions him. It is generally necessary to keep the horse close to one row in order to make the cultivator reach well under the bushes, and this apron will materially aid in doing it.

Fig. 1. Home-made searifer or scraper.

It is better to remove the old canes of raspberries and blackberries soon after they are through fruiting. Any insects which may be harboring in them at the time are thus destroyed. The canes can then be more easily cut, for they are still succulent and soft, while by spring they become very dry and woody. It also

PRUNING TOOLS offers a good opportunity to clean up the plantation, and to cultivate close as soon as the old canes are removed. The chief advantage to be gained by leaving them until spring is the slight protection from cold and winds which they afford to the younger canes, yet the more canes in the hill the greater the danger from rubbing by the swaying of the winds.

Some implement is needed for cutting out the old and superfluous canes during fall or winter. The work can be done with long -handled pruning shears, a corn -cutter, or with an ordinary bush -scythe, but some form of hooked knife, small enough to work in among the canes easily, and cut one at a time, is most convenient. A good tool of this kind can be made from a flat file, bent and sharpened properly, then firmly driven into a shovel or manure -fork handle, as shown, in Fig. 2. A spud (Fig. 3) is often useful in cutting out the canes, and especially in cutting off soft young suckers. Wm. A.

Brown, of Michigan, reports* that after trying many devices he prefers a tool something like this hook made from

a piece of bush -scythe riveted to a flattened shank and driven into a handle. He also recommends a

Fig. 2.

Pnining-hook.

Fig. 3.

Pruning-spud.

*Report Michigan Hortienltural Society, 1886, 406. B special rake for use in gathering up the okl canes when through pruning. It consists of a head -piece of four -by -four scantling, five feet long. Into this are fastened seven teeth of three -fourths inch round iron, eighteen inches long. Poles at right angles to the teeth serve for shafts, and a bow is attached to the head -piece for handling it. By means of such a tool, the canes can be quickly gathered into piles in the rows, and can then be loaded on a hay rack and drawn away.

For the spring pruning, which consists chiefly in shortening -in the laterals, some light, quick and easyworking shears are needed. If the canes are not too large and woody, a strong pair of sheep -shears is most convenient. Light -handled shears with blades ten or twelve inches long, are sometimes recommended. These require both hands to work them, and the chief advantage is in being able to cut several laterals at one stroke.

For pinching the new growth in summer, a longbladed knife or sickle with a keen edge will be found to be convenient if the shoots are so exposed as to allow them to be clipped readily, as on young bushes ; otherwise nothing equals a pair of sheep -shears. In fact, with these shears in one hand and a knife or sickle in the other, the pinching becomes a light task.*