Essays on the progress of nations

Front matter

ESSAYS

ON THE

PROGRESS OF NATIONS,

Preface

A portion of these Essays were published in the year 1846 ; a supplement to the original work was published in 1847, and a second supplement in 1848. The tariff of 1846 having been passed since the original work was published ; great changes having been made in the commercial policy of Great Britain ; California and New Mexico having been ceded to the United States by treaty ; a new census having been taken by the United States, and also by several countries of Europe ; the work has been revised and enlarged in view of these changes.

The population of the countries of Europe and America, is given according to the most recent enumerations, with the progressive increase ; the amount of the commerce of the United States, and of the principal commercial nations of Europe, at different periods, is stated according to the latest commercial reports which have been published ; and the productive industry of the United States, and of several countries of Europe, is stated and compared together, as far as is practicable in such a work, with the information at present attainable. The most of the matter contained in the original work and the supplements, has been condensed, corrected, _and re-arranged ; the chapters divided into sections for convenience of reference ; a large amount of new matter added, and many branches of the subject treated of not contained in the former work, making it, in a great degree, a new work, rather than a new edition of the former work.

It is more theoretical than the former work, with fewer details of statistics ; though it contains the results — the mere aggregates —

VI PREFACE.

of a much greater amount of facts and statistics. It comprises the leading principles of political economy and social philosophy, and the facts from which they are deduced, united in a systematic series of essays, logically arranged, showing the connection of the whole, and the bearing of each upon the development of the faculties of man, upon productive industry, civilization and the progress of nations.

The object of the Author has been to connect political economy with statistics ; to bring the rules and principles of the former, to the test of the established facts of the latter ; and to try them, as far as practicable, by the severe test, and certain standard, of the principles of mathematics. This is the only mode by which they can be reduced to certainty, and by which errors, false assumptions, fallacious reasoning, and erroneous conclusions, can be detected and corrected.

Political economy is claimed to be a science, but it is in a very unsettled and imperfect condition at present. The rules laid down as principles are inconsistent with each other, and many of them are founded on assumptions which are erroneous and untrue. Modern society and its institutions are so complicated, and so many causes operate at the same time to produce effects, that it is often very difficult to determine what causes have contributed most to produce them. The whole subject of political economy is so complicated, that the only mode of even approximating to the truth, is to observe and collect carefully the facts showing the progress of nations during a series of ages ; to note their condition at different periods, and their relative progress ; to apply the inductive system of philosophy, and from the effects observed, endeavor to deduce the causes which produced them. Such is the mode in which almost all scientific truths have been discovered — that is, by observation, experiment, and the deductions of reason. The course of events in different countries, under different institutions, and various systems of policy, are but experiments, which should bo carefully observed and noted, to enable us to learn from the experience of other nations, as well as our own. Until that mode is pursued to ascertain the principles of political economy, statesmen and nations will continue to grope their way in uncertainty and error, and be often misled by rules laid down as principles which are founded on false assumptions.

The object of the Author has been to show the effect on the progress of man and of nations, of civil, political, and religious liberty ; of the development of the intellect ; of educating the whole people ; of tjie general diffusion of knowledge and science ; of the discoveries, inventions, machinery, and improvements of modern times ; of the use and necessity of immaterial as well as material capital ; of adapting the division of employments to the condition and wants of the country ; of making production free, but regulating the foreign commerce of a country in such a manner as to secure to its citizens a field of employment, to encourage and promote their industry ; of the use of the precious metals, and of banking institutions and paper money ; of foreign debts and colonial bondage ; of associations, municipal and other corporations, local powers, and confederated systems of government ; of associating, uniting, and organizing numerous individuals, their capital and labor, by means of corporations, for great enterprises and undertakings, which a few persons are incapable of accomplishing ; of the union of civil and ecclesiastical power ; of despotism in any form ; of ecclesiastical hierarchies, and all attempts to enforce uniformity of opinion in matters of religion or government ; of large 'standing armies, the centralization of power, and its concentration in the hands of one man, or of an aristocratic few. The object has been, to inquire into the causes and principal elements of individual and national progress, and the institutions which tend to promote it, as well as those which have a contrary tendency. How far the Author has been successful in his efforts, it is submitted to the judgment of an intelligent and generous public to determine.

Nearly all the works on political economy used in the schools, advocate the free-trade side of the question ; and though there are many reports, addresses, and speeches, and some substantial works, which controvert those doctrines with great ability, yet there is no complete work on the subject of political economy, taking that yill PREFACE.

view of the question, and presenting the leading facts from -which its principles are deduced. This work is designed for common school libraries, for mechanics' and other public libraries, and for all classes of learners and inquirers into industrial, social, and political questions. It is hoped it may be found useful as a text-book, in connection with other works on political economy, for students in academies and colleges, who should be made acquainted with all the views and phases in which the subject can be presented. They should examine both sides of every question.

To express an opinion in favor of discrimination for the benefit of American industry, in laying duties on imports, is said by the advocates of free-trade to have a political bearing, and to involve partisan politics. On the contrary, they claim that the doctrines of free-trade are scientific, and the expressions of opinions in . accordance with them are proper, and not subject to a similar charge. To discuss one side of the question is claimed to be scientific and proper ; but a cry is raised against the discussion of the other side of the same question, as involving party politics, which they allege should be kept out of the schools, out of all agricultural conventions, and out of all other conventions and meetings of the people, except those of a purely partisan character. They seem to think that the schools and students should be supplied with books inculcating the doctrines of free-trade : that is esteemed proper ; but to supply them with books on the other side of the question, would be promoting partisan politics, and therefore pernicious. It is to be hoped that such sophistry will soon be discarded, and that both sides of every industrial, political, and economical question, will be examined with equal care. Accurate information upon the subjects treated in this volume, is necessary to every statesman, as a guide to enlightened legislation.

The most of the work was prepared for publication during the years 1850 and 1851, and much of it stereotyped previous to the reception of the information relative to the coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon of December 2d, 1851. This accounts for what is said in the fifth chapter, in relation to the constitution of France. The publication has been delayed in order to obtain the principal results

PREFACE. IX

of the late census of 1850. Through the kindness of Mr. Kennedy, the superintendent of the census, and of Mr. Irving, his chief clerk, the Author has been favored with much information collected with the census. He has also been favored during the progress of the work, with important information from several other officers of the government, who have greatly facilitated his inquiries. The works most frequently consulted, in addition to official documents and reports, have been " Hunt's Merchants' Magazine," " The American Almanac," " British Almanac and Companion," " Annuaire of France," " McCulloch's Statistics," " Commercial Dictionary and Universal Gazetteer," " Porter's Progress of the Nation," " Hallam's Middle Ages," " Jacob on the Precious Metals," " Brande's Encyclopaedia of Science and Art," " Gibbon's Rome," " Mosheim's Church History," and " Murray's Geography." The facts and statistics have been collected and arranged, and the estimates and deductions made with great labor, care, and attention ; and the Author hopes and trusts, that they may be useful to the public, and that the statistics, in the form in which they are condensed and combined, may comprise information valuable to the reading community of all parties and sects, whether they do or do not agree with the Author in his deductions and estimates.

Washington, July, 1852.

Chapter I

Ok the laws of nature, and their operations and effects upon the condition, transactions, and welfare of individuals ; AND UPON THE PROGRESS OF NATIONS, 1-33.

Sec. 1. Importance of studying and understanding the laws of nature. Sec. 2. The Laws of nature deduced from the elements and condition of the

material and intellectual worlds ; and defined. Sec. 3. Necessity of intellect, and the importance of its development and

cultivation.

Sec. 4. Moral law of nature, as distinguished from the physical law. Sec. 5. Utility denned. It is the principal test to determine the moral law

of nature, and moral virtue.

Sec. 6. Further illustrations, in reference to medicine, agriculture, theology,

law, etc., of the importance of understanding the laws of nature. Sec. 7. On the general and special providences of God ; and the general use

of natural causes and physical agents to effect his purposes. Sec. 8. Inherent weakness of the human mind, and the influences of natural

and external causes upon it.

Sec. 9. Means used by monarchical governments, and by the Pope and

Catholic priesthood, to form the opinions, and govern the people. Sec. 10. Means used to form the opinions and govern the people of France * during the Revolution of 1789 ; and the causes which produced that

revolution.

Sec. 11. Effect of habits, pursuits, exercise, etc., upon the constitution of man ;

and upon the formation of national character. Sec. 12. Effect of gunpowder, fire-arms, and the mechanic arts, in changing

the character of war.

Xll CONTEXTS.

Sec. 13. Nations, like individuals, with but little industry, seem to be impelled by fate.

Sec. 14. Effect of inventions and machinery upon the productive industry, wealth, power, and population of Great Britain.

Sec. 15. Population, revenues and power of France, from 1789 to 1815, compared with those of Great Britain : Napoleon's error upon the subject.

Sec. 16. Inventions and machinery produced the overthrow of Napoleon. Their effects are the natural effects of physical causes, and must continue until the end of time.

Sec. 17. The physical laws of nature constitute the basis of tMI laws of trade ; and in their effects they have prostrated not only individuals, but the credit of many of the States, and many :>f the banks of the United States.

Chapter II

Laws of nature continued — on the constitution and nature OF MAN, AND THE END OR PURPOSE FOR WHICH HE WAS

CREATED EDUCATION AND EXERCISE NECESSARY TO DEVELOPE

AND IMPROVE HIS MENTAL AND MORAL, AS WELL AS HIS PHYSI- CAL FACULTIES, AND FIT HIM FOR THE FINAL END OF HIS EX- ISTENCE, 34-53.

Sec. 1. As the education, habits, condition, and .government of a people have an influence upon their improvement, those topics are appropriate to the subject of these Essays.

Sec. 2, The mind being dependent on physical organs, its capacity depends very much upon the greater or less perfection and discipline of those organs.

Sec. 3. Mind, not the result of organization, but a distinct substance or principle ; its characteristics, faculties, and power.

Sec 4. Physical organs and conditions, and also the organs of the mind, transmitted from parent to child, which tends to form national character.

Sec. 5. The pain, and much of the physical and moral evil to which man is subject, arise necessarily from his constitution, and from the mode, and end, or purpose of his existence.

Sec. 6. Man was designed for an industrious, rational, social, moral, religious, and selfish being.

Sec. 7. The leading passions enumerated and described.

Sec. 8. A moderate and rational gratification of the natural appetites and passions of man, is in accordance with the end or object of his creation.

CONTENTS. Xlll

Sec. 9. On education ; its different kinds, history, and importance. Sec. 10. On school district libraries ; their origin and importance. Sec. 11. Education and exercise are necessary to develope the mental and moral, as well as the physical faculties of man.

CHAPTER III. On civilization DEFINITION and successive steps in the

PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION GRAZING, MINING, MECHANISM,

AGRICULTURE, AND COMMERCE DEPENDENCE OF AGRICULTURE

INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS, 54—65.

Sec. 1. Civilization is progressive.

Sec. 2. Civilization denned.

Sec. 3. Industry, property, and education, lie at the foundation of civilization.

Sec. 4. Successive steps in the progress of civilization.

Sec. 5. On the use of the metals; they necessarily precede both agriculture and a division of employments.

Sec. 6. Origin, basis, and advantages of commerce.

Sec. 7. Successive steps in the progress of civilization recapitulated.

Sec. 8. Effect of the application of science, of the mechanic arts, and of inventions and discoveries, on the progress of civilization.

Chapter IV

ON THE PRIESTHOOD, AND ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT ; AND THE INFLUENCE OF PROTESTANTISM, CATHOLICISM, MAHOMETAN FATALISM, AND MORMONISM, UPON THE HUMAN MIND, AND UPON CIVIL GOVERNMENT, THE PROGRESS OF IMPROVEMENT, AND

Sec. 1. Influence of the priesthood on the human mind, on education, on government, and on the progress of improvement. — Ecclesiastical tyranny.

Sec. 2. Supposed end and object of the Scriptures, of Christianity, and of church government.

Sec. 3. Origin and progress of ecclesiastical government.

Sec. 4. There is no necessary connection between the doctrines of a church, and its form and powers of government. Government of Protestant churches.

Sec. 5. On the government of the Roman Catholic church ; its form and character.

XIV CONTENTS.

Sec. 6. Character and usages of the early Christians, and the changes which

they underwent.

Sec. 7. Origin and character of Mahometanism, and of the Popish Inquisition.

Sec. 8. On fatalism, and its influence on the Mahometan character. Sec. 9. Origin and character of the sect of Mormons.

Chapter V

On the mode, means, and influences by which individuals and nations are governed the causes and chief instruments of despotism, and of freedom and independence

the different forms of government, their origin and

effects and the effects of political parties, of our

mode of elections, and of certain combinations and associations of men, 90-124.

Sec. 1. On the mode, means, and influences by which individuals and nations are governed.

Sec. 2. On the causes which have led to, and the chief instruments of despotism ; and the causes of liberty and independence.

Sec. 3. Democracy denned. It can not be sustained in its purity, among a very ignorant people.

Sec. 4. Aristocracy denned, and the character and. influence of the different classes stated.

Sec. 5. On the centralization of power, and the origin and importance of local power.

Sec. 6. Origin of the representative system of legislation, and the importance of two chambers.

Sec. 7. Character of the Anglo-Saxons and of the Normans, and the origin and progress of the laws, institutions, and government of Great Britain.

Sec. 8. Character of the House of Lords of Great Britain. The power and prosperity of that country not owing to a hereditary, landed, clerical, or legal aristocracy.

Sec. 9. On party combinations, and the frauds perpetrated by them.

Sec. 10. Evils of the system of elections by general ticket, and a remedy suggested.

Sec. 11. Effect of Anti-masonry, Anti-slavery, native Americanism, Catholicism, and Mormonism upon our elections.

Sec. 12. On the progress of civil liberty, and of reform in matters of government.

CONTENTS. XV

Chapter VI

On the nature and constituents of wealth, and how accumulated ; ON VALUE, exchangeable value and price ;

CAPITAL AND MATERIALS, AS DISTINGUISHED PROM PRODUCTS FOR CONSUMPTION; PRODUCTION, THE RESULT OF THE COMBINED ACTION OF LABOR AND CAPITAL, BOTH MATERIAL AND IMMATE- RIAL, UPON RAW MATERIALS ; WEALTH ACCUMULATED BY INDUS- TRY AND FRUGALITY; PURSUITS PERSONIFIED, THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE, 125-151.

Sec. 1. Nature and character of our wants, and the nature and utility of the things which are necessary to supply them.

Sec. 2. The utility of luxuries is partly real, but mostly factitious, — it is relative also.

Sec. 3. On values ; their character and basis. Many of them more or less factitious. Value and price of things fluctuate.

Sec. 4. Wealth and its basis, divided into material and immaterial, real and factitious.

Sec. 5. Definition and uses of capital, distinguished from materials to be manufactured, and from products for consumption.

Sec. 6. Coin, being an instrument of commerce, should be ranked as fixed capital.

Sec. 7. Production and productive industry denned.

Sec. S. Use of capital ; immaterial capital more difficult to acquire than material capital, and also more necessary to render labor effective.

Sec. 9. Importance of a division of employments, and the limits to such division.

Sec. 10. What constitutes a field of employment, and the importance of securing it.

Sec. 11. On the production and accumulation of wealth.

Sec. 12, Markets are among the principal stimulants of industry, and causes of wealth. Colonial policy of Europe ; the importance of securing the markets of every country to her own citizens, so far as they are capable of supplying them.

Sec. 13. The different employments and pursuits personified.

Sec. 14. Effect of the mechanic arts and of commerce on the mind and character of man, and upon the character and enterprise of nations.

Sec. 15. Effect of the mechanic arts and manufactures upon markets and prices, and on agriculture.

XVI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII. On the metals THEIR use THE discovery and history of

WORKING THEM, AND THE PROGRESSIVE PRODUCTION OF THEM,

152-174.

Sec. 1. General history and use of li.e metals.

Sec. 2. Introduction of the manufacture of iron into Great Britain, and the

production, importation, exportation, and consumption of iron in that

kingdom.

Sec. 3. Production, importation, and consumption of iron in France, the

United States, and Ireland.

Sec. 4. Estimates of the production of iron and other metals (exclusive of

gold and silver) in the several countries of Europe, at different

periods.

Sec. 5. On the use, production, consumption, and trade in copper. Sec. 6. Tin ; its use and production.

Sec. 7. On lead ; its use, production, consumption, and trade. Sec. 8. On zinc ; its use and the trade in it. Sec. 9. Coal ; its use, production, consumption, and trade. Sec. 10. On the production, consumption, and trade in salt. Sec. 11. General reflections on the importance of the metals, and the effect

of their increased production on industry and commerce.

Chapter VIII

ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS ; AND THEIR EFFECTS UPON THE HEALTH, CON- DITION, AND INCREASE OF MAN, 175-210.

Sec. 1. Origin and condition of the useful arts, and of agriculture among

ancient nations.

Sec. 2. Improvements in agricultural tools and implements in modern

times.

Sec. 3. Civilization commenced in warm countries ; house-building was

among the first of the mechanic arts learned by man. Sec. 4. Glass-windows, chimneys, stoves, the steam-engine, fuel, cold and

heat — and their influence on the comforts and industry of man. Sec. 5. Invention of saw-mills in the fifteenth century ; and the mode of

building, and condition of dwellings before that time. Sec. 6. In all civilized countries, more people suffer for want of comfortable

dwellings, clothing, bedding, and fuel, than for want of food. Sec. 7. The mariner's compass, and its influence on navigation.

CONTENTS. XV11

Sec. 8. Progress of improvement in the mechanic arts and manufactures, and their effects upon the comforts of man, and the increase of population-

Sec. 9. On paper — its invention, uses, and manufacture.

Sec. 10. On the production, manufactures, and trade in wool and woollen goods.

Sec. 11. On the production, manufacture, and trade in the manufactures of flax and hemp.

Sec- 12- On the production, manufacture, and trade in silk and silk goods.

Sec. 13. On the production, manufacture, and trade in cotton and cotton goods — the prices of cotton — the number of power looms and factories employed in the manufacture of wool, cotton, linen, and silk, in Great Britain and Ireland, respectively — and the number of spindles in use in different countries.

Sec. 14. On the production, uses, and manufacture of leather — and the trade in hides, leather, and manufactures of leather.

Chapter IX

On the origin, introduction, uses, and production of the principal products of agriculture, 211-239.

Sec, 1. On the cereal grains, or bread corns.

Sec. 2. The production and consumption of wheat.

Sec. 3. Rye — its production and use.

Sec. 4. Production and use of oats.

Sec. 5. Production and use of barley.

Sec. 6. Production and use of buckwheat and millet.

Sec 7. Production and use of rice.

Sec. 8. Production and use of maize, or Indian corn.

Sec. 9. Production and use of potatoes.

Sec. 10- Production of grain in the United States, Great Britain, Ireland,

and France.

Sec. 11. Production of grain in Russia, Austrian Empire, Spain, and other

countries of Europe.

Sec. 12. Trade in grain and flour at different periods. Sec. 13. General reflections on the agricultural products of Europe, and their

increase.

Sec. 14. The introduction, production, and consumption of sugar. Sec. 15. The production and consumption of coffee. Sec. 16. The introduction and consumption of tea. Sec 17. Physical and moral effects of tea and coffee. Sec. 18. The production and consumption of wine. Seo. 19. The production and consumption of tobacco.

XV1U CONTENTS.

Chapter X

On the precious metals, coin, and bank notes, 240-271.

Sec. 1. The utility of gold and silver, and the properties which fit them for measures of value and for currency — though they do not constitute an invariable standard of value.

Sec. 2. Quantity of pure silver and gold, and of alloy, in the coin of Great Britain, and the United States, at different periods.

Sec. 3. Mr. Jacob's estimates of the amount of coin in the Eoman Empire and in ancient Europe.

Sec 4. Production of gold and silver from 1492 to 1850 — and Gregory King's estimate of the supply in 1500 and 1696.

Sec- 5. Wear and loss of coin — consumption of gold and silver in the arts — coin exported to Asia, and the amount in Europe and America at different periods, from 1500 to 1840.

Sec. 6. Origin and progress of banking — and the estimated amount of paper money in circulation, in the several countries of Europe, and in America, at different periods.

Sec. 7. Banking capital, coin, and paper money, in the United States, from 1810 to 1849 — exports and imports of coin, and the influence of foreign commerce on banking.

Sec. 8. Amount of money to each person in each portion of the United States, and in each country of Europe— also the amount in Europe and America to each person, from 1500 to 1840.

Sec. 9. Depreciation of paper money — failures of banks— losses and evils resulting — and remedies suggested.

Chapter XI

On supply and demand, the wants of man, and a proper division OF EMPLOYMENTS, 272-299.

Sec. 1. On supply and demand — the increased production of the present age — and the capacity of Great Britain and the United States, to produce certain articles sufficient to supply the wants of the world.

Sec. 2. The division of employments, and the industry of a nation should be adapted to the wants of the people, and of the commercial world ; and to the resources and condition of the country.

Sec. 3. How much of each class of provisions, breadstuffs, and vegetables, do our people need ?

Sec. 4. How much salt, fish, tea, coffee, spices, sugars, dried fruits, and rice, do our people need, and consume annually ?

CONTENTS. XIX

Sec. 5. What kinds, how much, and of what value of clothing, do they need and consume annually ?

Sec. 6. What fuel, lights, soap, and household furniture, and of what value do they need ?

Sec. 7. What kind and value of dwelling houses, outhouses, grounds, shade trees, etc., do they need, to promote their comforts and enjoyments ?

Sec. 8. Annual expenditures for books, newspapers, and other periodicals, for education, and for horses and carriages kept for pleasure.

Sec. 9. Cost to the consumers, of the tobacco, and the intoxicating drinks consumed annually.

Sec. 10. Recapitulation of the annual consumption of the people, — the value annually produced — the value accumulated — and reflections on the imperfect division of employments in our country — the surplus of some articles wasted, and the deficiency of others, supplied by imports from abroad, which might have been furnished at home.

Sec. 11. What proportion or per cent, of the adult males should be employed in agriculture in different climates — what per cent, have been employed in agriculture, and what per cent, in other pursuits, in different parts of the United States, and in Great Britain and Ireland — and the values produced annually by each division.

Sec. 12. General reflections on the effects of an improper division of employments, not adapted to the condition and wants of a people.

Sec. 13. Utility of competition — injurious effects of excessive competition — and the importance of concert of action among producers, in order to limit production to the wants of the commercial world — and to direct labor and capital from employments in which there may be an excess of production, to others, in which there may be a deficiency.

CHAPTER XII. On prices, and their fluctuations, 300-3 GG

Sec. 1. Necessity of a standard or measure of value in making exchanges

— use of gold and silver coin as such standard. Sec. 2. Causes of the changes in value of gold and silver. Sec. 3. On the price, or market value of products. Sec. 4. Natural limit to the demand for food — no limit but poverty,

to the demand for objects of ornament, taste, and fashion. Sec. 5. Effect of demand and supply on each other, and on prices, where

there is a proper division of employments, and production is adapted

to the condition and wants of the people. Sec. 6. The prices .of labor are governed by the same natural laws that

regulate the prices of the products of industry.

XX CONTENTS.

Sec. 7. On the prices of land, and the causes of the great difference between their value in densely peopled countries, and in those sparsely settled.

Sec. 8. On rents, and what regulates the amount.

Sec. 9. Interest on money, and profits on capital — what determines the amount of profits, and the rate of interest — and the effect of high and low rates of interest on the prosperity of a country.

Sec. 10. Free trade theory of cost and price.

Sec. 11. Free trade theory of the effect of competition.

Sec. 12. False assumption involved in the free trade theory of price. ,

Sec. 13. False assumption of the facility of labor and capital changing from one employment to another.

Sec. 14. Errors of the theory of free trade arising from false assumptions.

Sec. 15. Tables showing the prices of wheat in England, from 1120 to 1557.

Sec. 16. Table showing the average and comparative prices of wheat at Oxford, England, from 1583 to 1800.

Sec. 17. Average prices of wheat in Great Britain from 1801 to 1850.

Sec. 18. Comparison of the population with the products of wheat and prices at different periods; showing the poverty of the people, and the famines, plagues, and great mortality which prevailed.

Sec. 19. Rent of land, wheat produced per acre, and price of labor in the 12th and 13th centuries.

Sec. 20. Value of ships, iron, wool, and wines in Flanders in the year 1470.

Sec. 21. Table of exports of England in 1354, giving quantities and prices — condition of the laboring classes.

Sec. 22. Prices of rent, wages, provisions, etc., in the 13th and 14th centuries.

Sec. 23. Comparative condition of the laboring classes in the 14th and 19th centuries.

Sec. 24. Table of prices in the 16th century.

Sec 25. Contract prices of provisions and labor at the Royal Hospitals, at Greenwich, from 1730 to 1835.

Sec. 26. Exports from London to France, and the prices of the same in 1751 — and the official values of goods.

Sec. 27. Official and declared values of the leading articles exported from Great Britain in 1832 and 1834.

Sec. 28. Official and declared values of British exports annually, from 1798 to 1845 — and the amount to the United States since 1821.