Essays on the progress of nations, in productive industry, civilization, population, and wealth

Front matter

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Preface

Some parts of the following essays were written at intervals during the last fifteen years, when the author was not occupied with professional business, and without any definite object in view. Many of the materials and statistics embodied in them, were collected in Common Place Books, Scrap Books, and in Indexes referring to official documents, public reports, reviews, and standard works of history, politics, philosophy, political economy, and government. His attention was first drawn to the details of the census of the United States of 1840, and the facts and statistics of the several states returned with ii, by the copious extracts from it, contained in the American Almanac for the years 1842 and 1843, and in the United States Almanac for the year 1843 ; and during the summer of 1843 he met with the May and June numbers, for the year 1843, of Mr. Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, and read the chapters of Professor Tucker's work on the Progress of the United States, contained in those numbers. Some months afterwards, in the winter of 1844, and after the publication of McCulloch's Gazetteer by Messrs. Harper & Brothers, and of Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography by Messrs. Lea & Blanchard, the author commenced the examination of the details of the census of the United States in connection with those works, for the purpose of comparing the statistics of our country with those of Great Britain, France, and the principal countries of the old world, in order to ascertain as far practicable, their different degrees of progress, and the causes of the same. A large amount of notes and extracts were soon collected, by way of comparison, on the progress of population more particularly ; and numerous laborious calculations were gone into, to determine the number of the several classes, as to age, of the foreign emigrants to the United States, and between the several divisions of the United States ; in order to ascertain the effects of climate on health and mortality, and the relative mortality of each of the classes of persons made by the census, in the free states, in the slave states north of the thirty-fifth parallel of latitude, and in those south of that parallel.

The deductions of the author having an important bearing upon many of the leading questions of political economy, he finally determined to extend his inquiries to all the principal departments and products of human industry, and to the

IV PREFACE.

causes of the progress of communities and nations, and to publish a volume of essays upon the subject. In the course of his inquiries, he was led to discuss in a very condensed form, the influence of the laws of nature, of education, of climate and of government, civil, military and ecclesiastical, upon the human mind and upon the destiny and progress of man. The discussion of these subjects, comprising the first five chapters, seemed to him important ; in order to show their bearing and influence, upon the course pursued by individuals and communities as well as nations, upon their productive industry, and upon their condition and progress at different periods of their history His object has been to connect political economy with statistics ; to bring the rules and principles of the former, to the test of the established facts of the latter ; and to try them, as far as practicable, by the severe test and certain standard of the principles of mathematics. This is the only mode by which they can be reduced to certainty, and fully understood.

The facts and statistics have been collected and arranged, and the estimates and deductions made with great labour, care and attention, and the author hopes and trusts they may be useful to the public ; and that the statistics, in the form in which they are condensed and combined, may comprise information valuble to the reading community of all parties and sects, whether they do or do not agree with the author in his deductions and estimates. The authorities, like the authorities in a judge's decision or a lawyer's argument, are generally referred to in the body of the work, as a more convenient form than to put them in separate notes at the bottom of each page.

The author intended to have included in the work, essays on the theory and principles of Free Trade ; upon the prices of commodities in different ages ; upon the wages of labor in different countries, and at different employments ; upon the credit system, and some other subjects ; including estimates in detail of the annual value of the productive industry of the several States, as well as of the United States ; but the limits prescribed for the volume would not permit.

Detroit, July 20, 1846.

Chapter I. On The Laws Of Nature

On the living principle, intellect, and elements of the material world ; the laws of nature defined ; their operations and effects upon the condition, transactions and welfare of individuals and of nations. — The capacity of the human mind; the moral law of nature, as distinguished from the physical law of nature; moral virtue; the principle of utility; theology, the laws of nations, and municipal law, all derive aid from the laws of nature ; the world is governed by physical agents, and natural, not super-natural means ; the doctrines of fatalism, and the influence of circumstances ; the influence and importance of education ; the French Revolution ; influence of habit, climate, education, gun powder, the spinning jenny, steam engine, power loom, and cotton gin ; the population of Great Britain, and her revenues, and those of France at different periods ; overthrow of Napoleon at Waterloo ; and failure of the United States Bank of Pennsylvania. — 1-34.

Chapter II

Industry and exercise are necessary to develope the mental, and moral, as well as the physical faculties of man. — 35-46.

Chapter III

Definition of civilization ; the primary wants of man ; progressive steps in civilization, grazing, mining, mechanism, agriculture, commerce ; dependence of agriculture ; inventions and improvements. — 47-62.

Chapter IV

On the passions, education, habits and employments of man ; the different forms of government adopted by him ; and their respective influences upon the developement and inclination of the mind, as well as upon the productive industry, progress, and improvement of individuals and of nations — The effect of education, and ecclesiastical influence and government, in restraining the human mind ; democracy and aristocracy defined ; character of some of the ancient governments; origin and progress of the system of representative councils and assemblies ; progress of the government of England ; her colonial policy ; party combinations and party spirit in the United States ; organization of our elective system, its bad effects, and the proper remedy suggested ; policy of the Anti-Masons, Abolitionists, Native Americans, and Catholics. — 63-108.

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter V

On ecclesiastical government ; and particularly on the system of government of the Roman Catholic Church, and the influence of that government, and of the policy of that church, upon the minds of its members, and upon the political governments and civilization of Europe ; the Inquisition ; Mahometanism, and the influence of the doctrines of fatalism upon the mind, character, success and progress of the followers of Mahomet. — 108-123.

Chapter VI

Agriculture, the mechanic arts, commerce and other pursuits personified. — 124- 128.

Chapter VII. On The Metals

On the discovery of the metals, and the small amount in use until within a century past ; progressive increase of iron in England, and the quantity exported in 1843 ; quantities of iron, coal and grain in several countries of Europe ; copper, tin, lead and zinc. — Quantity of iron made in Europe at differet periods from the year 1500 to 1840 ; effects of an increase of mining and of the metals and coal upon the productive industry and commerce of Great Britain and France ; iron works in the United States. — 128-153.

Chapter VIII

On the origin and progress of agriculture and the mechanic arts ; principal implements of husbandry, and their improvement ; origin of glass, chimnies and stoves ; coal consumed in England, and its importance for fuel ; origin of saw mills ; effect of all these improvements upon the health and increase of mankind.— 154-172.

Chapter IX

On the principal products of agriculture. — Wheat ; the quantity of wheat raised in England at differont periods, and the quantity exported to 1766, and the quantity of grain imported from 1766 to 1825. — Rye, oats, barley, buckwheat and Indian corn ; table of the quantity of grain and potatoes for each person in each of the great divisions of the United States ; potatoes, sugar, coffee, tea, tobacco and cotton, and the quantities produced and consumed ; and the tobacco and cotton exported ; increase of slaves and of the production of cotton ; sheep and wool, flax, hemp and silk. — Table of the production of grain in the Free and Slave States, and in Great Britain and France. — 173-225.

Chapter X. On The Precious Metals And Paper Money

Comparative value of British and American coin ; amount of coin in use among the Romans ; gold and silver obtained from the mines from 1492 to 1829 ; table of the population of Europe and America, and the amount of coin at different periods from 1500 to 1840 ; Banks of Venice, Amsterdam, and England; the Mississippi Scheme of John Law at Paris ; Banks of France, Netherlands, St. Petersburgh, Vienna, Berlin and Copenhagen ; the paper money of Prussia, Austria and England, and table of the bullion and coin in the banks of Europe and America, and the percent, of depreciation and value of bank notes in circulation in 1810 and 1830 : table of population, money, and amount to each person in each century from 1500 to 1830 ; prospective increase of the precious metals, and of population ; losses and failures arising from paper money ; remedies suggested ; table of banks, banking capital, deposits, circulation and coin in the United States at different periods from 1811 to 1845 ; imports into, and exports of specie from the United States from 1820 to 1845 ; effect of the tariff laws, and the balance of trade, on specie ; national, state, and city debts, and debt of Great Britain. —225-253.

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CHAPTER XL

FOREIGN COMMERCE.

On the foreign commerce and foreign debts of the United States, and the influence of tariff acts upon them ; table of imports of United States, and duties collected from 1821 to 1845 ; table of exports of United States from 1821 to 1845; table of the income of Great Britain from customs and excise in 1838 and 1840; table of exports of United States from 1790 to 1845, and one giving details for the years 1842 and 1844 ; table of exports and imports, showing the balance of trade for and against the United States from 1820 to 1845 ; details of imports of United States in 1841 and 1844 ; tables showing the exports and imports of France, and the exports and imports of Great Britain, and the amount of duties collected in 1843 ; the policy of Great Britain.— 254-286.

Chapter XII

On the manufacture, consumption and effects of alcohol ; chemical properties of alcohol and its effects, compared with tea and coffee ; quantity consumed in Detroit, in the United States in 1810 and in 1840 ; in England, Wales, Ireland, Prussia and Sweden. — 286-297.

Chapter XIII

On the proper division of employments ; the number of persons in the United States in each of the principal employments ; the number of scholars at common schools, and the number of persons above twenty years old who can not read and write ; the number of persons in each of the divisions of employments in Great Britain in 1831, and the value of the agricultural products of Great Britain and Ireland ; the products of the mining, mechanical and manufacturing industry of the United States in 1840, and also in 1810, including the products of the forest and the fisheries ; the proportion of our several wants respectively ; and the consumption and enjoyment by the people of the principal necessaries and comforts of life ; a surplus of perishable articles valueless, and can not be accumulated as a productive capital, like metals and manufactered products ; value of the manufactured products oi Great Britain and Massachusetts.— 297-319.

Chapter XIV

On the general laws which govern the progress of population ; the probable population of the Roman Empire, and of the countries comprising the Roman Provinces at different periods ; and the progress of the population of Great Britain, Ireland, France, Italy, Holland and Belgium, Russia, Denmark, Canada, Mexico, Cuba, Porto Rico, Spain, China and Japan. — 319-349.

Chapter XV

On the emigration to, and population of the American Colonies at different periods ; the emigration to, population of, and ratio of mortality of the United States from 1790 to 1840 ; the mortality of the army at the several military posts of the United States, showing the effect of climate on health and mortality ; tables of mortality of Belgium, and of the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, London and Paris ; estimates of mortality of children under five years old in the Free and Slave States ; mortality of Great Britain, Belgium and our Free States compared ; the emigration to, population of, and mortality of each class of white persons in each of the three great divisions of the United States ; first, the Free States ; secondly, the Slave States north of the thirty-fifth degree of latitude ; and lastly, of the Slave States south of the thirty-fifth parallel of latitude ; showing the effect of a northern and southern climate on mortality, longevity, and population ; table of the relative number of each class of persons in France, Belgium, Sweden, Ireland, England and Wales in 1821 and 1841, in our Free States, Northern Slave States and Southern Slave States ; comparative decrease of mortality in Great Britain, France, and our Free and Slave States ; increase of the free colored population and slaves, and importation of slaves from Africa. — 350-404.

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Chapter XVI

On the first introduction of canals, rail roads, locomotive engines, steam boats and magnetic telegraphs ; a statement of the length and cost of the canals and railways, and the amount of the public debt of each one of the U States ; similar statements of the length and cost of the canals of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the railways projected as well as those completed in G. Britain, Ireland, Belgium, France and Germany, and the revenues in 1842 of the rail roads of Great Britain ; statements of the cost, expenses of running and repairs, and the revenues of each and all the rail roads in Massachusetts and New York during the year 1845 ; statements of the revenues of the New York canals, and of nearly all the canals and rail roads in the United States ; a statement of the receipts of the combination of steamboats on the Western Lakes during the years 1840, 1841, 1842 and 1844 ; and an estimate of the total amount paid for the transportation of persons and property in the United States, including the coasting busines. — 404-421.

GHAPTER XVII.

On the probable future progress in population and wealth of the respective divisions of the United States, and of the several States ; of Great Britain, Ireland, France, Holland, Belgium, China, Mexico, and other countries of Europe, Asia and America ; table of state censuses in 1844 and 1845 in the States of New York, Michigan, Illinois, Georgia, Alabama and Missouri ; calculations showing the probable population of whites, free colored persons and slaves, and representative population in each of the three divisions of the Union in 1850 ; tables showing the comparative productiveness of agricultural and manufacturing labour ; table of the probable population of each of the Free States in 1850, and calculations showing the estimated population of the Free and Slave States in I860.— 422-455.

Chapter I

ON THE LAWS OF NATURE, AND THEIR OPERATIONS AND EFFECTS UPON THE CONDITION, TRANSACTIONS, AND WELFARE OF INDIVIDUALS AND OF NATIONS.

The series of worlds comprising the Universe, are composed of matter of various kinds ; each possessing distinct properties, affinities and powers, by which the several kinds act and react upon each other with perfect uniformity, form combinations, and produce dissolutions, and cause the motion of the heavenly bodies, and the action of what we usually term the elements, upon the face of the earth. Man was constituted by the Supreme Being mostly of the same materials, as the material world, and partakes of its properties, and is subject to, and adapted to the same general laws ; and while some things are congenial to his nature, and necessary to sustain life, others are destructive to his existence as an organized being. There seems to be a living principle pervading organized beings, which is the basis of life, and the active agent which is the builder of all organic structures ; and in addition to this, man is endowed by his Creator with an intellect, adapted to his physical and organic constitution and nature. Though the intellect or mind is an intelligent and active principle of itself, capable of originating action, possessing freedom of action, or freedom of will, as it is usually termed, yet it is perfectly dependent upon, and can act through the medium of physical organs only.

The earth and all its products are spread before mankind, to be

equally enjoyed by all ; this constitutes a community of interest

among the whole human family ; hence equality, to some extent, of

natural, not acquired rights, such as a right to life, liberty, and to pursue ones own happiness in a proper manner, lies at the foundation of justice ; and hence the duty of each to respect the rights of his fellow beings. This community of interest, and the moral duty of man to man, would form but a feeble bond of union among mankind, if the Deity, in the formation of man, had not placed in him a desire of conjugal union, and fixed in his constitution a principle of sympathy for his fellow beings, and his family and associates in particular, which acts as an instinctive propensity of his nature, impelling him to social intercourse as a means of enjoyment ; also impelling him to do good and relieve distress. This sympathy is the source, if not the very essence of what some call moral sense ; and constitutes the basis of the domestic affections, of our social feelings, and of every feeling of benevolence, charity and philanthropy. This instinctive propensity, or feeling of sympathy, results partly from our intellectual and partly from our physical or organic constitution and nature ; or more probably from the intimate union and combination of the two ; and constitutes our moral nature and the principal bond of union between man and man. Certain relations, therefore, exist between man and his Maker ; between man and man ; between man and the material world, of which he constitutes a part, and between the intellectual and physical, or organic part of man. All these relations, and the properties and powers of matter and of spirit upon which they depend, have been nicely adapted to each other by the infinite wisdom and benevolence of the Deity : they comprise the physical, organic, spiritual and mora] laws of the Universe ; and constitute what are usually called the Laws op Nature.

All physical laws and physical agencies being governed by powers and properties inherent in matter, and not by intelligence, their constant tendency in action is to change and vibrate from one extreme to another — from heat to cold, and from cold to heat ; from wet to dry and from dry to wet, &c. &c. ; one extreme tends to produce the opposite extreme. These constant changes are necessary to furnish a sufficiency of water upon all parts of the surface of the earth to promote vegetation ; and though some of the direct effects of these changes are prejudicial to the health of man when he is much exposed to them, yet they are equally necessary to the life of man as to vegetables, by reason of their supplying him with water, as well

ON TKE LAWS OF NATURR.

as with vegetation. Man needs the benefits resulting to him from these frequent changes produced by physical laws ; but in order to secure his health, he finds it necessary to resist, as much as possible, the direct effects of these changes upon his system, and to maintain, by means of clothing, dwellings and fires, a uniform temperature, a uniform and dry atmosphere, and uniformity, to a considerable extent, in his diet, drink, exercise, sleep, and all his habits.

Mind 01- intellect is therefore necessary to direct all the movements of man ; to enable him, not only to avoid and resist the pernicious effects upon him of the elements of the material world, and to use these elements as instruments and agents to promote his comforts ; but also to prevent the appetites and passions of his physical nature from running into excesses, and eventually undermining his health, and constitution, bringing on debility and disease, and leading him into vice and crime. Man is endowed with intellect to watch over, protect, provide for, govern and direct his physical nature, and to check and control his physical appetites and propensities, and prevent them from running into excess and leading to pernicious consequences, vice and crime. A just medium, which can be maintained only by a constant exertion of intellect, avoiding extremes in all cases, un juste milieu, as the French express it, is not only the path of virtue, but it is the only mode to secure the general welfare and happiness of man.

The mind of man is constituted with capacities for development and improvement to an almost unlimited extent, by means of its own activity ; and it is generally supposed that he is placed in this world as a state of probation, to exercise and develope his faculties, and fit him for a higher and more important state of existence. Longevity to a certain extent, is necessary to effect this object ; and in order to promote longevity, it is necessary for man to develope his physical as well as his mental faculties, and to provide himself with all the physical comforts in his power, to secure him against the diseases and ills of life, as far as practicable.

Man should study the constitution and nature of things, and the laws of the material world, so as to make them instruments and agents to promote his welfare ; and not become the victim of their operation, and be swept by them down the current of time, without much influence over his own destiny ; as is the case with every savage and barbarous people. He should study them in order to avoid physical causes and agencies which he cannot control, and to learn to use material things, not only for food, clothing, dwellings and fuel, but also to make use of them, and of the laws of nature, as instruments and agents to aid him in his labors to increase the fruits and products of the earth, and enable him to supply himself with all the necessaries and comforts of life, which tend to promote his health, physical welfare, and happiness.

It has been stated, that while some things are congenial to the nature of man, and necessary to sustain life, others are destructive to his existence as an organized being. Caloric is necessary to the existence of animal as well as vegetable life, but too much of it, causing an excessive degree of heat, will destroy life. Some combinations of matter, and conditions of the atmosphere, so filled with carbonic acid gas and heated with caloric, as to be prejudicial to health, and destructive to animal life, tend in a high degree, to promote the growth of vegetation, and indirectly, and in the final result, promote animal life and the welfare of man. Thus, even those elements and laws of nature, whose immediate effect is to destroy the life of man when exposed to them, in their general and ultimate effects, tend to provide the materials to furnish him with food, clothing, fuel, and a shelter, and to promote his general welfare.

Man's intellect and understanding was given to him to enable him to judge of, learn from experience, and understand, the properties, tendencies, and effects of all the elements of matter, and of all their various combinations ; that he might avoid such elements, combinations, and quantities as are injurious and dangerous to him, and whose evil tendencies he cannot control, and use such materials, and in such combinations and quantities, and in such mode, and conditions of the human system, as to promote his health and general good. In hot climates, he promotes and secures his general health and welfare, and that of his family, by planting shade trees, and building a house to protect them from the burning heat of the sun during the day ; in very cold climates, he is constantly struggling with the cold, instead of the heat, and is obliged to build a house or hut. as warm as possible, and to provide himself with a large amount of fuel and of clothing, of leather, furs and skins, or of cloth made of woo], to protect himself from the severity of the cold ; in changeable, and what are usually termed temperate climates, he finds it necessary to resort to all Uiese means, and to use these and many others, some to protect himself from the excessive heats of summer, and others to defend him against the cold of winter : and in all climates, he must use means to protect himself against rains, storms, dews, winds and bad air ; and must also provide himself with a sufficiency for every day's use of wholesome water' as well as food.

Man is born in perfect helplessness and ignorance, and yet he is required to conform to the laws of God as unfolded in the volume of nature ; and 'must learn them before he can do so. His whole life should therefore be a constant effort to learn these laws ; to prevent the physical appetites and propensities of his nature from running into excess and vice ; to resist and avoid the influence of the laws of nature, and of the elements and combinations of matter which are dangerous, or injurious to him ; to subdue and regulate properly his own appetites and passions ; and to subdue the earth, and convert its products into useful instruments and materials for securing and promoting his health, enjoyment and general welfare. Hence one of the first and most important duties of parents, is to give their children as much instruction as is in their power, and adapted to their station and condition, to fit them in the best manner to discharge their duties, provide for and satisfy their own wants, and for the great business and duties of life, upon which they have entered.

It must have been designed by the Deity, and probably forms the basis of His moral law and government, that man should be subject to a constant struggle with the physical laws of nature, and required 1 to make great efforts to support life and satisfy his own wants, and provide for his own comforts, as a suitable discipline to develope his faculties, and fit him for a higher state of existence. The moral law and government of God, which may be called the moral law of nature, therefore, requires man to develope his faculties ; to struggle against the physical laws of nature, and provide for his own wants and comforts ; and to act under all circumstances, in such a manner as to promote his own general welfare and happiness, and that of his fellow beings, and particularly of those depending upon him, to the

ON THE LAWS OF NATURE.

greatest extent possible. This conclusion is deduced from the consideration, that the Deity, being an omniscient and benevolent being, must have established all the physical, as well as the spiritual and moral laws of the universe which comprise the law of nature, in.such a manner as to promote the general welfare and happiness of man ; when he conforms to them, as far as is in his power. Moral virtue may therefore be defined, perfect obedience to the moral laws of nature, or in other words to the will of God ; and the distinction between right and wrong, lies in conformity, or non-conformity to this great rule. By acting in accordance with the moral laws of nature, mankind will not only avoid many evils, but promote their own welfare and happiness to the greatest extent, of which their constitution and nature will admit. The principle of sympathy for his fellow beings, was implanted in the organic and physical constitution of man, in order to give him a physical propensity, to act in accordance with the moral law, and government of God, so far as to do his duty to his fellow beings.

Utility is a tendency to promote the general welfare and happiness of man. Utility and justice are the principal tests to determine what is in accordance with the moral laws of nature, and the will of God ; and they are therefore the chief tests of human action and virtue, as well as of all human laws. We must look to their general tendency, and not to any particular tendency, which may be the result of peculiar circumstances ; and in relation to utility, it is general utility to the community, or to all the persons affected by it ; and not that kind of utility, which necessarily injures one by benefitting another, like the traffic in intoxicating drinks, and the business of providing vicious amusements. A murderer is executed by the government in pursuance of a general law ; not because the execution is or can be of any utility to the criminal, but it is done for the protection of the community, to deter others from committing like crimes ; but although the sole tendency of the execution may be to protect and benefit the community, yet the general tendency of the general law upon the subject, was to protect the person who became a murderer, just as much as to protect any other member of the community. The rule is similar in relation to the acts of individuals ; utility, general utility is the test ; which is never inconsistent with the rights of any individual, nor with equal justice to all. It -comprises whatever promotes the general welfare and happiness in the aggregate, of any one or more persons, and is not injurious to the community, nor to the rights of any individual. In this view of the subject, an act may be in accordance with the law of nature, and with the will of God, and therefore a good act, though all its direct utility and benefit is confined to the actor, or to him, his family and friends ; even in this case, the act may be said to promote in a remote degree, the general welfare and happiness of the community in the aggregate, in as much as the welfare and happiness of the community, comprises that of.each and every member of the community.