Dressmaking

Preface

The purpose of this book is to give such instruction in dressmaking — in the broadest meaning of the term — as to make a text-book for both teacher and student in colleges and schools (above the elementary) where sewing or dressmaking is taught.

The Introduction considers the fundamental meaning of dressmaking. It traces the development of the art of dressmaking from its simple beginnings to its present elaborate expression — from the time when clothing was represented by painting and tattooing to the present day, when numerous coverings conform to the various requirements of custom, use, and fashion.

Part I presents the development of costume from the standpoint of history and design. This material is necessarily given in an abbreviated form and serves merely as a suggestive outline for further study and research.

Part II considers Textiles, the materials which are used in dressmaking, and discusses the economic value of various fibres and fabrics. The general processes of textile manufacture are given to serve as a basis for consideration of the cost and wearing qualities of any fabric. A few suggestions are included for physical tests for fabrics — such tests as do not require a knowledge of chemistry and are possible in the schoolroom or at home.

Part III treats of design and technique in pattern-making and dressmaking. It presents various methods for cutting, fitting, and finishing a garment to meet the demands of art and of convention as affected by fashion.

iv Preface

A knowledge of all fundamental stitches and seams is presupposed and no instruction in elementary sewing is included. Directions are given, however, for any sewing which pertains strictly to dressmaking.

In Part II, Textiles, the author is greatly indebted to the generous co-operation of Mr. Edgar H. Barker, chief of the Departments of Woolen and Worsted Yarns of the Lowell Textile School, not only for his valuable constructive criticism, but also for many opportunities for technical verification which his wide experience and vital interest in the subject have made possible.

In Part III, Dressmaking, Miss Ruth Wilmot, of Teachers College, has rendered helpful criticism and general suggestions in the chapters dealing with the technique of dressmaking and the problem of design. To Miss Bessie White, of Teachers College, the author is also gratefully indebted for the outline of the chapter on Embroidery.

For advice in the plan, scope, and organization of material the author wishes to express her thanks to Doctor Frederick Henry Sykes, president of the Connecticut College for Women, at whose suggestion the book was first undertaken and whose kindly interest has continued throughout its construction.

Lastly, she wishes to record her thanks to Miss Edna Dingwall, through whose untiring and sympathetic assistance the labor of the completion of the book has been appreciably lightened.

II. Textile Manufacture 48

III. Textile Economics 120

Part Three— Dressmaking

IV. General Suggestions and Instructions . . . 155 V. Drafting and Pattern-Making 172

VI. The Use of Commercial Patterns 239

VII. Pattern-Designing and Draping 250

VIII. Waists 313

IX. Skirts 373

X. Finishings and Embroidery . . . . . . .421

Bibliography 486

Index 480

Introduction

When the various and intricate garments of to-day are donned, there is little thought of why clothes are worn, of what the beginnings of the custom or habit were, or of the evolution of that custom from its simplest expression in the garb of primitive man to its most complex in that of the civilized nations of the present day. But just as it is not possible to study intelligently the art of modern painting or sculpture without some knowledge of its background or history, so it is not satisfactory to begin a study of the art of dressmaking without some consideration of its past and of its evolution from that past.

In very early periods man was unclothed and probably unadorned. The beginnings of clothing have been attributed to various causes: to a feeling of modesty or shame; to a need for protection against climate; but it is generally conceded that coverings were due to and developed from a desire for ornament or for the distinction which decoration or ornament brings.

Clothing was not, originally, due to the demands of modesty. The idea of what constitutes modesty has been expressed very differently by different races. With some tribes of savages coverings can be and are entirely dispensed with, without consciousness, if the body is tattooed or painted. Among the savages in Alaska a woman must never appear without a plug in her lips. Similar variations are found among civilized races. The Mohammedan women satisfy the demands of modesty by covering the face, the Chinese women by concealing the feet. In Western nations a woman has been allowed to wear, without comment, a very decollete costume at night, but the same garment was not considered approviii Introduction

priate for street wear. Recently, however, it is evident that fashion has affected our feeling of what constitutes modesty, for the prohibition has been removed, and convention is not outraged by the decollete costumes which are constantly seen in the street. Again, both men and women appear for public bathing in costumes which would be considered, at present, highly immodest for either the street or the ballroom.

Westermarck says that the feeling of shame is not the cause but the result of covering the body; that modesty is evidently self-consciousness caused by the unusual — it might be from wearing clothing or from going without it. If custom or convention is followed, no self-consciousness will arise.

That morality has nothing to do with coverings seems proved again by savages. Among rude races immorality is less common than among the more clothed.

Climate has affected and still affects the wearing of clothing somewhat, but it can be in no way held responsible for its first adoption. Many races living in hot countries wear the full amount of clothing, while others, living near Cape Horn, still unaffected by civilization, wear almost nothing. Among civilized nations there is less and less distinction shown in regard to materials appropriate for different seasons. We now see chiffon and fur combined for summer or winter as fashion dictates. The convention of the cities demands a coat for the street no matter what the temperature may be.

According to Carlyle: "The first spiritual want of a barbarous man is decoration." There are peoples destitute of almost everything which is included among the necessities of life, but there are no people so rude as not to possess and take pleasure in possessing and wearing ornaments.

Ornament and clothing signify the desire which has always been present in man to express his personality and attain distinction among his fellows. This desire was first evidenced by the tattooing or painting of the body for decoration. It is suggested that man may have received

Introduction ix

scars in battle, which brought him not only glory, and distinction from men, but also sympathy and attention from women. He naturally desired to perpetuate the scar and retain the position gained, so the scar was carefully reproduced in paint.

Hanging ornaments, trophies of battle or travel, were the next step in decoration. They were probably combined with tattooing, and their use may have come from man's innate taste for change; for, while painting was permanent, ornaments could be hung on the body in a variety of ways — the ears, nose, lips, arms, fingers, legs, and waist all served as ornament-bearers. Of these, the waist offered the greatest opportunity for decoration, and it is probably from the girdle or waist ornaments that the earliest form of actual coverings was developed. Aprons or abbreviated skirts appeared, followed in quick succession by a shoulder-covering. Both of these were made of skins of animals or, as the art of weaving became known, of plaited reeds and grasses.

Superstition may have played a part in the use of ornaments. In many cases they seem to have been considered a protection against the dark and evil spirits, both feared by primitive man. Ornaments were donned for protection; they have been continued for decoration. Superstition did not entirely die out with the disappearance of primitive man. From time to time slight evidences of it are found to-day. For example, many children wear amber necklaces as a preventive of sore throat. Can a savage do better than that !

At first, then, ornament or clothing was desired by man because it gave him individuality, distinction, and, as a result, probably a certain social standing. It is interesting to attempt to note in how far the same desire, creating others in its advance, seems to have been at work throughout the succeeding ages in bringing clothing, in its many phases, to the present important position which it unquestionably occupies in the industrial and social world to-day. In studying the gradual development of dress, this desire is so woven into its very foundation that it is x Introduction

difficult to separate its results from those of other strong influences, many of which were brought to life by it.

To quote Carlyle again: "Society is founded upon Cloth. All visible things are emblems. Hence, clothes are so unspeakably significant." All social distinctions are made more distinct by clothing. What real value have the so-called precious stones except that given them because of their scarcity? Their possession demands great expenditures and consequently indicates the economic status of the wearer. Again, the judge shows his power, the minister the dignity of his calling, by a special kind of covering. And so on through various social strata. Once having established various standards as evidencing social position, convention demanded strict adherence to them, allowing only the demands of that all-powerful factor fashion to change that standard from time to time.

The first coverings worn, even though necessarily simple, must have given much the same satisfaction as hanging ornaments, in that there could be constant variety and increased number. No attempt was made to fit these garments. All skins or furs were flat and materials were woven flat; but the body was of varying contour, and so the materials seem most often to be draped or held around the body by a girdle and some substitute for pins.

As greater technical skill was acquired and the number of garments increased, it was found satisfactory to have the shape of the garments conform somewhat to that of the figure. Once this fashion was established, great interest was shown in the figure and more fitted garments followed. With the fitted garments the question of convenience arose. Clothing must be made to be put on and taken off without difficulty; it must be so made as not to hamper the use of all parts of the body. In addition to cut came the question of materials; only those could be chosen which were sufficiently flexible to permit freedom of action. Otherwise chain armor or steel plate might form a part of clothing for regular wear.

Why was it that distinction was finally made between man's costume and that of woman? In all probability it

Introduction xi

was that same factor which is to-day affecting dress — the question of occupation, of utility, which involves the question of suitability to circumstances and environment.

How soon fashion began to affect dress and its development it is difficult to state. There seem to be various explanations for its power past and present. The most potent factor was, without doubt, the desire for variety, the stimulus attendant on change, the universal dramatic quality, the desire to become part of the "passing show" — to be "in fashion."

But to-day a careful analysis shows that the trade influence far outweighs all other factors in the fashion world. The manufacturer has played on the desire for variety to his commercial advantage. In spite of public opinion and the taste of designers, he is practically universally successful in emerging each season with such new fashion requirements as necessitate a constant output of fresh materials.

The first coverings which were made — that is, shaped and sewed — were the products of the home. As they increased in number and were more fitted, the making of the garments became more difficult and demanded the special attention of certain numbers of people, and we have the simple beginnings of dressmaking as an occupation.

In the development of the trade which followed, many changes have been made in the texture and design of the materials used; but in form they have remained a flat web, woven without any effort to conform to the outline of the figure which they are intended to cover. In these same thousands of years of change, the number and characteristics of the garments worn have, in general, been the same, but the variety of style and intricacy of cut have so increased, and with the increase have been included so many other considerations, that dressmaking, which was at first estimated merely as a trade, must now be treated as an art.

Dressmaking, when considered as an art, makes many demands. It requires not only improved methods of conxii Introduction

struction but an appreciation of the relation of technique to art, to hygiene, to economics. Technique has received more emphasis than have these broader relationships, and consequently its development has been more rapid and complete, and we now have fairly definite rules for sewing and many improved methods for cutting and fitting. To cut a garment satisfactorily and make it fit, according to the demands of fashion and the needs of the human form, is a difficult task; consequently many methods have been devised — such as cutting by patterns made to regular measures, by drafting to individual measures, and by draping on a dress-form arranged to correspond to the desired measures. All of these systems are so much used that they have given rise to extensive business operations which have adapted the systems to the prevailing fashions and brought them to a point nearing perfection.

So greatly has the emphasis been laid on technique alone that hitherto a garment has been adjudged satisfactory if well made. Now, however, a new standard must be met. While it is obviously impossible to formulate definite rules for a complete understanding of this larger scope of the problem of dressmaking, it is clear that beyond a mere knowledge of the method of construction there must also be an appreciation, which shall require for the finished garment not only utility and suitability but definite hygienic, economic, and aesthetic values. In meeting the demand there is necessity not only for a working knowledge of the fundamental principles of hygiene and physiology, textile economics and art, but also for a knowledge of the development of costume through the past centuries — that is, a history of costume, showing the evolution of modern dress.

While these broader relationships may seem at present intangible and difficult to acquire and apply, dressmaking in its fullest meaning must include them, together with perfection in technique. In determining the value of the finished garment, these factors are equally important, and one cannot be stressed at the expense of the other.

In the chapters which follow, an effort has been made

Introduction xiii

to present the subject of dressmaking from this viewpoint. If this is kept in mind the book — which at first may appear to contain material not now generally considered relevant to the dressmaking problem — will be much more easily understood and prove much more valuable as a text.

It is not possible to present in detail, in the limited space allowed, such important subjects as textiles, historic development of costume, and design. The chapters in which they are included do not aim in any way to survey the subjects completely. They consider only what seems absolutely essential and what may prove suggestive of the fuller possibilities of these subjects in their relation to the dressmaking problem.

Chapter I Costume

The study of the development of costume throughout the early ages presents many difficulties. Until a fairly recent period fashion books were unknown, and the only records were those found in the writings of the times, in wall carvings and paintings, in sculptures on monuments and tombs, on seals and various gems, and a little later in engravings of various fetes, royal processions, marriages, etc. All these were not made with the student of costume history in mind, but generally to commemorate some event or to perpetuate the memory of various reigning monarchs, and in consequence they were not always accurate representations of the period they illustrate. Allowance must be made for the vagaries of the artists, the materials in which they worked, and also for the fact that in many cases these monuments were not made until some centuries later than the events they commemorated, when little accurate information existed regarding the costume of the earlier periods. To obviate this difficulty, the costume of the period at which the work was actually executed generally appears.

By the comparison of various records, however, a fairly satisfactory and continuous outline of costume history has been worked out — an outline which in general is sufficiently suggestive to meet the demands of the modern dress designer.

Every fashion and every detail of fashion of the present day may be traced to that of some former period. It is only through contact with the representations of these fashions that the creative ability so necessary in designing is awakened; it is only through a knowledge of them that what is called "originality" is possible. In this connection originality means the power to adopt and adapt suitably the fashions of the past to the demands of the present.

It is because the French have this knowledge, because in their libraries, churches, and museums there are these records free to all, because for centuries they have appreciated their value and have through constant practice acquired skill in their use, that all the fashion world looks to them for inspiration and guidance in design in costume.

To be of the greatest use an outline history of costume should include a survey of the costumes of the ancient Egyptians, the Grecians, and the Romans, as showing the general type of garment used in early civilizations. These differ very greatly from the garments worn by the Gauls at the time of their conquest by the Romans, or from those of the Franks who later appeared and gradually took possession of Gaul, renamed it France, and established there the French nation. French costume, as such, may be considered as beginning at this time, about the sixth century. From this period no attempt is made here to describe even briefly the costume of any other nation than the French. They began at an early period not only to create their own fashions but to make whatever fashions they borrowed distinctively theirs by their manner of adoption. Because of limited space the costumes of men are omitted from this outline; in Egypt, Greece, and Rome they did not differ in their main characteristics from those of the women, and in French costume the same names and many of the same characteristics persisted until the Renaissance, from which time there is definite distinction between the garments of the men and women.

I. Egyptian Costume

Egyptian dress was evidently as much ruled by fashion as is the dress of more modern nations. It was unlike modern dress, however, in that the costume of the men showed more changes than did that of the women and seemed of greater importance. For a period of about thirteen hundred years all Egyptian women, whether princess or peasant, old or young, wore one garment, a simple dress. It was without folds and so narrow that the form was

Simple dress of Egyptian women plainly visible. This garment reached from just below the breast to the ankles and had few variations in style. These were generally in the arrangement of the shoulder straps or braces which served to hold the dress in place. These straps were straight bands and were usually worn over both shoulders. They were, however, sometimes arranged to form a V-shaped neck. Occasionally only one or even no strap was used, in which case the costume was made sufficiently narrow to keep it in place. The usual ornamentation for the dress was a little embroidery at the hem.

Improved commercial relations and greater intercourse with foreign nations affected Egyptian fashions. The same narrow dress was first arranged to cover the left shoulder and to leave the right one uncovered and the arm free. Later there were various changes, such as the addition of fulness and the use of a short sleeve for the left arm. Over the dress a wide, loosely flowing cloak or mantle was worn. It was fastened over the breast and

hung straight down to the feet. The dress and the mantle were made of fine, transparent fabrics. Many other variations appeared from time to time; the most important was an additional thick, non-transparent underdress which fitted the figure closely and somewhat concealed it. The outer dress was given even more fulness which was frequently arranged in plaits. There were also dresses with two sleeves, short mantillas with fringed borders, short aprons, and girdles. Both linen and wool were used for the costumes. They were spun and woven by hand and dyed in various colors, such as red, saffron, and blue. While the garments worn by the Egyptian women were simple in texture and arrangement, the accessories with which they completed their costume were elaborate in design and rich in coloring and offer many suggestions for the decoration of modern costume. They included ornaments, head-dresses, shoes, etc. In the early periods women seem seldom to have worn sandals, though they were adopted later. They were chiefly of one form, fairly heavy in the sole, with straps; but they were made of a variety of materials.

In Egypt the care of the head was especially important.

Egyptian costume showing the use of the thick underdress

It was a hot country where covering was evidently needed to protect the head from exposure to the sun. The hair of the Egyptian woman was well cared for and elaborately dressed. Wigs were evidently frequently, if not generally, worn. At first the fashion of all classes was a heavy coiffure of straight hair hanging in two tresses over the shoulders.

Later the ends of these tresses were made into a fringe, and still later the full length of the hair was divided into a number of locks and braided or curled. In addition to the elaborate hair-dressing there was the head-dress representing a lotus bud, a vulture, an asp, according to the rank and position of the wearer.

Ornaments were used throughout all periods.

The most valued of these were evidently

the colored embroidered necklets or collars which were made of leaves of papyrus or of fabrics and were embroidered in a great variety of interesting designs in gay-colored wools. There were also bracelets, earrings, and anklets which in many cases matched the collars in design and color.

Egyptian head-dress

II. Greek Costume

Greek costume of the classic period has given greater inspiration than any other to the designer in the past and in the present.

In Greek costume there were two general classes of garments, the under and the outer, both of which were rectangular or square in shape and were draped on the figure rather than fitted to it. These garments varied somewhat, from time to time, in size and method of wearing. The undergarment or dress was called a chiton, the outer garment or mantle a hi mat ion.

There were two forms of the chiton, known as the Doric and the Ionic. The exact difference between these two forms has given rise to much discussion. It was evidently a difference in detail rather than in general arrangement. The Doric was of thick material and small in size. When worn it fell in a few heavy folds and was without sleeves. The Ionic was of fine material and large; it fell in many small folds and was arranged to form sleeves.

A rectangular piece of material was used for both. The material for the Doric was about one foot longer than the wearer's height and as wide as the distance from tip to tip of the fingers with the arms outstretched. For the Ionic it was much larger, especially in width. Much of this additional width was used in forming the sleeves.

In draping, the extra length was usually turned over along the edge which was to form the top of the garment.

The folded-over section was called the apotygma. The entire piece of material was then folded in the centre from top to bottom edge and placed about the figure with the opening at the right side. Pins at the shoulder were used to keep it in place and form the opening for the neck and arms.

The Doric chiton was arranged by dividing the width into three fairly equal sections, the centre for the neck, the others for the arms. With this arrangement only one pin at each shoulder was required. The central division of the Ionic was less than a third of the full width. The

Doric chiton extra size was made into sleeves by using pins placed at regular intervals from the shoulder along the opening nearly to the elbow.

After either chiton was attached at the shoulder the girdle was placed about the waist, the wearer standing with arms outstretched to draw the material up into place. The chiton was usually sufficiently long to allow the material to be pulled up through the girdle to form a blouse. The arrangement of the apotygma was varied; it might hang free or be held in by the girdle. Both the chitons made exceedingly graceful costumes. They permitted perfect freedom of movement and gave opportunity for variety in arrangement.

The usual mantle, or himation, was a large square or rectangular piece of material, usually wool, which varied in size and in the method of arrangement according to the taste of the wearer. It was draped about the figure rather than fitted, and in many cases it served both as a mantle and a covering for the head. Like the chiton, when well draped it was a very graceful garment and lent itself to an infinite variety of arrangement.

All garments worn by the Greeks were in early times woven in one piece, a garment separate and complete in itself. Wool, linen, and silk were all used. The woolen materials were evidently the most satisfactory. Some were very heavy and firm, others thin and so loosely woven as to be almost transparent, while still others were very much like crepe. Linen and silk were in general made up into the more elaborate and luxurious garments of later periods. Cotton was used in small quantities. It was yellow in color and too expensive for the larger garments. Greek chitons were of many colors, such as purple,

Ionic chiton red, yellow. Designs of birds, beasts, flowers, or emblems were frequently distributed over the entire surface or made to form a border. In many costumes a variety of

design was combined, an all-over design with two or three different borders.

The girdles, which formed an important part of the costume, were often decorated with pendent ornaments and set with gold and silver studs. Their position changed from time to time: in the Archaic period it was at the waist line; in the age of Pericles below the waist, as shown by the maidens of the Parthenon frieze. Later it was much higher, until finally it was practically under the arms.

When out-of-doors the

women usually wore either

sandals or soles tied on with

straps, which were frequently

carried part way up the leg.

Soft leather boots were also

used.

The manner of wearing the hair varied very little. It

was usually parted and drawn into a knot at the back.

Fillets and other ornaments were used in many different

ways to bind it up and hold it in place.

The Grecian women were fond of jewelry and wore many different kinds — rings, bracelets, necklaces, earrings, and brooches. The last might be considered as a necessary part of their costume. They had also a variety of hair ornaments, such as pins and metal diadems and fillets.

Himation or mantle

III. Roman Costume

The costume of the Roman woman was, in general character, much like that of the Grecian. It was fairly simple in the early history of Rome, but became, under the empire, much ornamented and exceedingly luxurious.

There were three garments — the tunic, the stola, and the palla.

The inner tunic served as an undergarment and was simple in form. It was generally made of wool though sometimes of linen.

The stola was very long and full, like the Ionic chiton of the Grecian women. It did not require sewing, but could be held in place on the shoulders by clasps or brooches. It differed from the chiton, however, in having at the bottom a border or shaped ruffle which was frequently elaborately decorated or embroidered and gave much additional fulness about the feet. The stola was usually arranged to have fairly close sleeves to the elbow. These, like the shoulders of the garment, were fastened with gold or jewelled clasps or buttons. A girdle was worn about the waist or hips through which the stola was drawn up to form a blouse. The stola was the distinctive garment of the Roman matron; the women of the lower classes were not permitted to wear it.

The palla was the outer garment, or mantle. In shape it was rectangular. It corresponded to the Grecian himation and was worn in much the same way, frequently serving as a covering for the head. The material of the palla for women of the higher classes was usually fine and thin. In the early period it was made of wool, but later was frequently of a mixed fabric, such as silk and wool or silk and linen. Occasionally it was of pure silk, which was a great luxury. In addition to the palla the women of the empire wore a garment called a dalmation, which was made of wool, linen, or cotton. It was usually decorated, was somewhat shaped, and had sleeves.