Continental Europe, 1270 to 1598.

Preface

The text which appears here as Continental Europe, 1270-IS9S is, by permission of the French publishers, mainly a free translation of L'histoire de l'Europe et en particulier de la France de i2yo à 1610, par P. Bondois, Agrégé d'histoire, Professeur au lycée Buffonj et Ch. Dufayard, Docteur es lettres. Professeur au lycée Henri IV.

In its original form this book contains four chapters on England, a chapter on Paris in the XIV century, and one on the Renaissance in France. These it seemed best to omit and to use the space thus obtained in expanding other chapters which were too condensed in their treatment. The chapters handled in this way are chiefly those concerned with the reign of Philip the Fair, Italy, Germany, the Turks, Spain, the Reformation in Germany, and the Renaissance in Italy. In modifying these and some of the others the writer has freely supplemented the original French text with matter and quotations taken from standard historical works.

Even with these changes nearly half the book relates to France. In view of this fact it would seem that some sort of explanation should be made to the reader for allotting to a single country this amount of space in a text which bears the title of Continental Europe. The justification, in the mind of the writer, for thus emphasizing France, rests not so much upon her relative importance from 1300 to 1600, as upon the exceptional development of the French Monarchy and the definite form given during that time to her political institutions. Not only is this political growth continuous, but by 1598 France has attained to a permanent territorial unity. This achievement marks her for distinction among her neighbors, and makes the history of France indispensable to a proper understanding of the history of Continental Europe.

The bibliographies to be found in the original French text are for the most part in French, German, or Latin. They are omitted here as not serving their purpose in view of the many detailed bibliographies Xvhich are accessible to students of history.

iv PREFACE

No effort has been made, therefore, to compile a list of books in English which would even attempt to cover the varied subjects considered in this work.

In the revision as well as in the translation considerable liberty has been taken with both the form and matter of the original text. For this reason, while the merit of the book belongs to its distinguished authors, Professors Bondois and Dufayard, the writer feels that he should assume entire responsibility for the historical accuracy of any statement made in the narrative which follows.

Chalfant Robinson.

Princeton,

Chapter I Page

General Survey of Europe at the End of the XIII Century . i

Europe from 1270 to 1598, i — The Great Interregnum, 2 — The Electors, 2 — The Princes, Lay and "Ecclesiastical, 3 — The Towns, 4 — The Hansa, 4 — Italy, 5 — The Papacy, 5 — France, 6 — England, 6 — Spain and Portugal, 7 — Scandinavia, 7 — The Orient, 8 — The Slavs, 8 — Conclusion, 9.

CHAPTER II The Aggressive Policy of the French Monarchy, 1270-1328 . . 10

The Government of Philip III, the Bold, 1270-1285, 10 — Wars with Castile and Aragon, 11 — The Sicilian Vespers, 11 — Character of the Reign of Philip IV, the Fair, 1285-1314, 12 — His Domestic Policy, 12 — Progress of Royalty, 14 — The Lawyers and Royal Justice, 14 — The Diminishing Feudalism, 15 — The Estates General, 15 — Philip's Religious Policy, 17 — Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII, 17 — The Attack at Anagni in 1303, 19 — Trial of the Knights Templar, 20 — The Army under Philip the Fair, 22 — The Wars of Philip the Fair, 23 — Territorial Acquisitions of Philip the Fair, 24 — The Prestige of the French Crown, 25 — The Centralized Administration of Philip the Fair, 25 — ^The Council, 26 — The Parlement. Administration of Justice, 26 — The Local Administration, 26 — The Chamber of Accounts. Financial Administration, 27 — Summary of the Reign of Philip the Fair, 28 — Reign of Louis X, 1314-1316, 28 — Reign of Philip V, the Tall, 1316-1322, 29— Reign of Charles IV, the Fair, 1322-1328, 30.

CHAPTER III Philip VI and John the Good, 1328-13 64 — The Hundred Years'

War 31

Philip VI of Valois, 1328-1350, 31 — The War with Flanders, 1328, 31 — The Hundred Years' War. Its Origin, 32 — The Forces of the Two Countries, 33 — The Beginning of the War, 34 — War of the Breton Succession, 34 — The English Invasion. The Battle of Crécy, 1346, 35 — The Capture of Calais, 36 — End of the

V vL CONTENTS

Reign of Philip VI, 37 — The Increase of the Royal Domain, 38 — John II, 1350-1364, 38 — Charles the Bad, 39 — Resumption of Hostilities with the English, 39 — The Estates General, 1355, 40 — The Battle of Poitiers, 1356, 41 — The Dauphin and Etienne Marcel, 42 — The Estates General of 1356, 42 — The Great Ordinance of March 3, 1357, 43 — The Parisian Revolt, 45 — The Jacquerie, 45 — Death of Etienne Marcel, 1358, 46 — The Treaty of Brétigny, 1360, 47 — Death of John the Good, 1364, 48.

Chapter IV

The Condition of France in 1364, 49— Character of Charles V, 49 — Bertrand Du Guesclin, 50 — War with Navarre, 1364-1365, 51 — End of the War in Brittany, 1364-1365, 52 — Du Guesclin and the Great Companies, 52 — The War in Castile, 53 — The Breach with England, 54 — The New System of Warfare, 55 — Defeat of the English, 55 — Brittany and Du Guesclin, 56 — The Government of Charles V, 57 — The Parlement, 58 — The Army, 58 — The Finances, 59 — The Results of the Reign of Charles V, 60.

Chapter V

Institutions and Arts of France in the XIV Century . . . 62

New Character of the Monarchy, 62 — Growth of the Royal Domain, 62 — The Monarchy Definitely Organized, 63 — Splendor of the Monarchy, 63 — The Central Power, 64 — The Parlement of Paris, 64 — The Grand Council, 66 — The Chancellor, 66 — The Petitions of the Royal Household, 66 — The Chamber of Accounts and the Administration of Finance, 67 — The Estates General and the Provincial Estates, 68 — The Provincial Administration, 69 — The Army, 69 — The Nobility, 71 — The Clergy, 72 — The Third Estate and the Townspeople, 72 — Prosperity and Decadence of France, 73 — Science and Art, 75.

CHAPTER VI The Reign of Charles VI, 1 380-1422 77

The Minority of Charles VI, 77 — The Insurrection of 1382 / (Maillotins), 78 — The War in Flanders, 1382, 79 — The Reaction

in Paris, 1383, 80 — The Marmousets, 1388-1392, 80 — The King's Madness, 81 — The Dismissal of the Marmousets, 82 — John the Fearless and Louis of Orléans, 83 — The Murder of the Duke of Orleans, 1407, 84 — The Armagnacs and the Burgundians, 85 — The Cabochiens, 85 — The University of Paris, 86 — The Great Cabochien Ordinance, 141 3, 86 — Excesses of the Ca-

CONTENTS vii

PAGE

bochiens and the Armagnacs, 141 3, 88 — Resumption of the Hundred Years' War, 88 — Agincourt, 141 5, 88 — The Tyranny of the Armagnacs, 89 — The Triumph of the Burgundians, 1418, 90 — Assassination of John the Fearless, 90 — The Treaty of Troyes, 1420, 91.

CHAPTER Vn

Charles VH and Joan of Arc 92

Charles VH and Henry VI, 92 — The Sad Condition of France, 93 — The Battle of Verneuil, 1424, 93 — Siege of Orléans, 1428, 93 — The Awakening of a National Sentiment, 94 — Joan of Arc, 1412-1431, 95 — Joan at Chinon, 97 — Relief of Orléans, May 8, 1429, 97 — Coronation of Charles VH, July 17, 1429, 98 — Captivity of Joan of Arc, 99 — Her Trial, 100 — Her Death, May 30, 1431, 102 — The Treaty of Arras, 1435, 103 — The Praguerie, 105 — The Skinners, io6 — End of the Hundred Years' War, 106 — \ The Rehabilitation of Joan of Arc, 107 — The Conquest of \ Guienne, 107 — Last Years of Charles VII, 108.

CHAPTER VIII France in the XV Century no

Character of the Reign of Charles VII, no — The Grand Council, III — The Estates General, 112 — The Provincial Estates, 112 — The Army before the Reforms of Charles VII, 113 — Reforms in the Army, 114 — The Dragoon Companies (Compagnies d'Ordonnance, 1445), 115 — The Tax-free Archers (Francs-Archers), 116 — Artillery, 117 — Judiciary Institutions, 118 — Financial Institutions, 119 — The Domain, 120 — The Aides, 120 — The Taille, 121 — Jacques Cœur, 121 — The Crown and the Church, 124 — Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 1438, 124 — The Humiliation of the University, 125 — The Aristocracy, 126 — The Third Estate, 127.

CHAPTER IX 7ir

The German Empire from 1273 to 1347 — The Hapsburgs — The

Swiss — The House of Luxemburg 129

Rudolf of Hapsburg, 129 — The Hapsburgs, 130 — The Last of the Przemyslids of Bohemia. Ottokar II, 131 — Rudolf and the German Princes, 132 — Rudolf and the Towns, 132 — The House of Austria, 133 — Adolf of Nassau, 1292-1298, 133 — Albert of Austria, 1298-1308, 134 — The Forest Cantons of Switzerland, 134 — The Struggle Against the Austrian Princes, 1291-1315, 135 — The Legend of William Tell, 135 — The Swiss Confederations, 136 — The House of Luxemburg, 137 — Henry VII, 1308- 1313, 138 — Henry VII, the Pope, and the Ghibellines of Italy, viii CONTENTS

PAGE

1308-1314, 138 — Louis of Bavaria. Frederick the Fair, 1314- 1330» 139 — The Struggle of the Empire and the Papacy, 139 — The Pragmatic Sanction, 140.

CHAPTER X Germany in the XIV and XV Centuries, 1347-1519 . . . .143

Charles IV, 1347-1378, 142 — Charles IV in Italy, 142 — The Golden Bull, 1356, 143 — The Provisions of the Golden Bull, 143 — The Weakness of Charles IV in Germany, 1356-1378, 144 — Bohemia at the Time of Charles IV, 145 — Arts and Letters at the Court of Charles IV, 146 — The German Towns of the XIV Century, 146 — The Struggle of the Towns and the Nobles in the XIV Century, 147 — The Hanseatic League, 147 — Wenzel, 1378-1400, 148 — His Deposition in 1400, 148 — Rupert of Bavaria, 1400-1410, 149 — The Emperor Sigismund, 1411-1437, 149 — The Insurrection in Bohemia, 1409-1419, 150 — Sigismund and the Hussites, 151 — Prokop the Great. End of the Hussite War, 1436, 151 — The Progress of the House of Hohenzollern, 152 — The Teutonic Order of Knights, 152 — Albert II of Austria, 1438-1439, 153 — Frederick III, 1440-1493, 153 — Frederick III and Germany, 154 — Ladislaus the Posthumous, King of Bohemia. George Podiebrad, 155 — Hungary from 1387 to 1526, 155— "" ~- Maximilian I, 1493-1519, 156 — Maximilian's Ideas, 157 — Reorganization of Germany, 157 — Germany in 1519, 158.

Chapter XI

The Great Schism and the Councils of Constance and Basel,

1378-1450 159

The Church in the XIV and XV Centuries, 159— The Schism, 159 — The Decadence of the Church, 160 — Mysticism, 160 — John Wyclif, 1324-1384, 161 — John Hus, 1396-1415, 162 — The French Theologians, 162 — The Council of Constance, 1414-1418, 163 — The Question of the Schism, 163 — The Deposition of the Three Popes, 164 — The Condemnation of John Hus, 165 — Failure of the Council of Constance, 165 — The Council of Basel, 166 — Deliberations of the Council of Basel, 166 — Failure of the Council of Basel, 167 — The New Schism and the Council of Florence, 167 — The End of the Council of Basel, 168.

CHAPTER XII Italy in the XIV and XV Centuries 169

Italy in the XIV Century, 169 — Guelf and Ghibelline, 170 — The Italian Cities, 171 — Rome without the Popes, 173 — ^The

CONTENTS ix

Popes at Avignon, 174 — Rienzi, 1347-1354, 174 — Florence before the Medici, 176 — The Rise of the Medici, 176 — The Venetian Republic, 178 — Italy During the Schism. Nicholas V, 178 — The Popes at the End of the XV Century, 178 — The Borgia. Alexander VI, 1492-1503, 179 — The Career of Cccsar Borgia, 179 — Lorenzo de' Medici, 1464-1492, 182 — Savonarola, 1452-1498, 183 — Ludovico II Moro, 184.

Chapter XIII

France in the Middle of the XV Century, i86 — The Accession of Louis XI, 187 — His Character, 187 — Early Years of His Reign, 1461-1464, 188 — The League of the Public Weal, 1464, 189 — The Battle of Montlhéry, 1465, 190 — The Treaties of Conflans and of Saint-Maur, 1465, 190 — The Breaking of the Treaties, 191 — The Second League of the Nobles, 1467, 192 — The Interview at Péronne, 1468, 193 — The Breaking of the Treaty of Péronne, 193 — The Third League of the Nobles, 1471, 194 — The War with Burgundy, 195 — Louis XI and His Domestic Enemies, 195 — The Projects of Charles the Bold, 196 — The Fourth League, 1475, 197 — War of Charles the Bold Against the Swiss, 1476, 198 — The Death of Charles the Bold, 1477, 199 — The Burgundian Succession, 199 — Death of Louis XI, 1483, 200 — The Aggrandizement of the Royal Domain, 201 — The Army Under Louis XI, 201 — His Judicial, Financial, and Religious Policy, 202 — Commerce and Industry, 202 — Conclusion, 203.

CHAPTER XIV The French Invasion of Italy . . , 204

Accession of Charles VIII, 1483-1498, 204 — The Estates General at Tours in 1484, 205— The " Fools' War," 1485-1488, 207 — The French Acquisition of Brittany, 1491, 207 — Italian Plans of Charles, 208 — The Treaties of Étaples, Narbonne, and Senlis, 1492-1493, 209 — Charles VIII in Italy, 209 — Charles VIII at Rome, 1494, 210 — Conquest of the Realm of Naples, 1495, 211 — The Retreat of Charles VIII from Italy, 1495, 211 — His Death, April 7, 1498, 212 — Accession of Louis XII, 1498-1515, 212 — Louis XII in Milan, 1499-1500, 213 — Conquest and Loss of the Kingdom of Naples, 1 500-1 504, 214 — The Treaties of Blois, 1504- 1505, 215 — Submission of Genoa to France, 1507, 216 — The League of Cambrai Against Venice, 1508, 216 — Humiliation of Venice, 1509, 217 — Character of Louis XII, 218 — Julius II Against the French, 1511, 218 — Exploits of Gaston de Foix in Italy, 1512, 219 — French Reverses. The Loss of Italy, 219 — The Treaty of London, 1514, 220 — Death of Louis XII, 220.

X CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter XV

The Fall of the Latin Empire, 1204-1260, 221 — The Seljukian Turks in Asia Minor, 221 — Osman (Othman), 1258-1328, 222 — Orcan, 1329-1359, and the Turks, 222 — Aladdin, 222 — The Janissaries, 223 — Murad the First, 223 — The Battle of Kossovo, 1389, 223 — The Timars and the Ziamets, 224 — Bajazet I, 1389- 1403, 224 — The Battle of Nicopolis, 1396, 225 — The Mongols, 225 — The Battle of Ancyra (Angora), 1402, 226 — Mohammed I, 1402-1421, 226 — Murad II, 1421-1451, 226 — Conquests in Europe, 227 — John Hunyadi, 227 — The Battle of Varna, 1444, 227 — Scander-Beg, 228 — Mohammed 11, 1451-1483, 228 — Constantine XIII, 1449-1453, 229 — The Siege of Constantinople, 229 — Fall of Constantinople, May 29, 1453, 230 — Mohammed and the Greeks, 231 — Mohammed II and the Mussulmans, 231 — The Conquests of Mohammed II, 232 — His Death, 1483, 233.

CHAPTER XVI The Unity of Spain, 1252-1516 — Ferdinand and Isabella . . 234

Aragon, 1276 to 1458, 234 — Castile from 1252 to 1454, 234 — Navarre, 235 — The Decadence of the Moors of Granada, 235 — Portugal, 235 — John II of Aragon, 1397-1479, 235 — Don Carlos de Viana, 236 — Henry IV of Castile and Bertrand de la Cueva, 237 — The Cortes of Avila, 237 — Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, 237 — Isabella the Catholic, 238 — The Struggle Against the Aristocracy, 238 — The Inquisition in Spain, 239 — The Catholic Kings and the Towns, 239 — Boabdil, 240 — The Conquest of Granada, 240 — The Expulsion of the Jews, 241 — The Crusada Bull, 241 — The Death of Isabella, 241 — Ferdinand and Philip the Handsome, 242 — Ximenes, 242 — The Foreign Policy of Ferdinand, 242.

Chapter XVII

The Passing of the Middle Ages, 246 — Gunpowder, 246 — Paper, 248 — Printing, 248 — Gutenberg, 1400-1468, 249 — The First Printed Books, 249 — The Compass, 250 — Prince Henry "The Navigator," 1394-1460, 250 — Bartholomew Dias, 1445- 1500, 251 — The Mission of Covilham, 252 — Vasco da Gama, 1469-1524, 252 — Da Gama in India, 1498, 252 — Expedition of Alvarez Cabrai, 1 500-1 501, 253 — The Second Voyage of Vasco da Gama, 253 — The Government of Viceroys, 254 — The Conquests of Albuquerque, 1508-1515, 254 — Camoëns, 255 — The Precursors of Columbus, 255 — Christopher Columbus, 256 — Columbus in Spain, 257 — The Departure of Columbus, 257 — The First Voyage, August 3, 1492-March 15, 1493, 258 — The Discovery of

CONTENTS xî

America, 259 — The Line of Demarcation, 259 — The Second Voyage of Columbus, 259 — Columbus' Third Voyage, 260 — Last Voyage and Death of Columbus, 260.

Chapter XVIII

The Historical Perspective, 262 — The Spanish Adventurers in America, 262 — Ovando and Diego Columbus, 263 — Nunez de Balboa, 263 — Amerigo Vespuccio, 264 — John Cabot's Voyages, 264 — Magellan's Voyage of Circumnavigation, 265 — Valasquez in Cuba, 266 — Fernando Cortez, the Conqueror, 267 — Landing of the Spaniards in Mexico, 267 — Mexican Civilization, 268 — The March of Cortez upon Mexico, 269 — Expedition of Narvaez Against Cortez, 269 — The Lamentable Night (Noche Triste), June 30, 1520, 270— Siege of Mexico, 1521, 270 — Death of Cortez in 1547, 271 — Pizarro in Peru, 272 — Peruvian Civilization and the Incas, 273 — Conquest of Peru, 1532-1533, 274 — Death of Pizarro, 1541, 274 — End of the Conquistadors, 275 — Organization of the Spanish Conquest, 276 — Las Casas, 276 — Results of the Conquest, 277.

Chapter XIX

General Character of the Renaissance, 279 — Dante, 1265-1321, 281 — Petrarch, 1304-1374, 282 — Boccaccio, 1313-1375, 283 — The First Italian Historian, 283 — Humanism in the XV Century, 284 — The Primitives, 285 — Giotto, 1266-1337, 285 — Fra Angelico, 1387-1455, 286 — The Realists, 286 — Botticelli, 1447-1515, 287 — Signorelli, 1441-1523, and Perugino, 1446-1524, 287 — The First Venetians, 288 — Sculpture, Architecture, and Engraving in the XV Century, 289 — Niccolo Machiavelli, 1469-1527, 290 — Italian Prose of the XVI Century, 290 — Italian Comedy, 291 — The Italian Poets of the XV and XVI Centuries, 291 — Ariosto, 1474- 1533, 292 — Tasso, 1544-1595, 292 — Minor Poets, 292 — The Lombard School, 293 — Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519, 293 — Fra Bartolommeo, 1475-1517, and Andrea del Sarto, 1487-1531, 294 — Michael Angelo, 1474-1563, 294 — Michael Angelo and Julius II, 295 — Michael Angelo at Florence, 295 — II Penseroso. Night, 296 — The Last Judgment, 296 — Raphael, 1483-1520, 297 — Raphael at Rome, 297 — The Masterpieces of Raphael, 298 — Leo X and Raphael, 299 — Correggio, 1494-1534, 299 — Venice and the Venetians, 300 — Titian, 1476-1576, 301 — The Works of Titian, 301 — Titian the Pagan Painter and the Painter of History, 301 — Veronese, 1528-1588, and Tintoretto, 1518-1594, 302 — Other Venetian Artists, 303 — Italian Sculpture, 303 — Italian Architecture, 304 — Engraving, Marc Antonio, 1480-1530, 305 — Art in Germany, 305 — Albert Durer, 1471-1528, 305 — German xii CONTENTS

Sculpture, 306 — Holbein, 1460-1524, 306 — Lucas Cranach, 1472- 1553, 307 — Art in the Low Countries, 307 — Decadence in Italy, 308.

CHAPTER XX Charles V — The Protestant Reformation in Europe — The

Catholic Counter Reformation, 1519-1563 309

Germany at the Death of Maximilian, 309 — ^The Knights and the Peasants, 309 — Luther's Personality, 310 — Luther's Religious Ideas, 311 — The Question of Indulgences, 312 — The Ninety-five Theses, 313 — The Leipzig Disputation, 1519, 315 — The Imperial Election of 15 19, 315 — Luther's Breach with Rome, 316 — The Diet of Worms, 1521, 317 — Luther at Worms, 318 — The Condemnation of Luther, 318 — The Sacramentarians, 319 — The Peasants' War, 319 — The Diet of Speyer, 320 — The Protestant Princes, 321 — The Diet of 1530, 321 — The Confession of Augsburg, 1530, 322 — The Schmalkaldic War, 323 — The Anabaptists of Munster, 323 — John of Leyden, 323 — Luther's Death, 1546, 324 — Maurice of Saxony, 324 — The Battle of Miihlberg, 325 — The Interim of 1548, 325 — The Peace of Augsburg, 1555, 326 — The Reformation in Switzerland, 327 — Zwingli, 327 — Evangelism, 327 — Luther and Zwingli, 328 — The Battle of Kappel, 328 — Geneva and Calvin, 329 — Calvins Rule in Geneva, 330 — Other German Reformers, 330 — The Reformation in Denmark, 331 — The Reformation in Sweden, 331 — Reforms within the Catholic Church, 331 — The Catholic Reformers, 332 — Ignatius Loyola, 1491-1556, 333 — The Jesuits, 333 — The Council of Trent, 334 — The Last Popes of the XVI Century, 335 — The Results of the Reformation, 337.

Chapter XXI

The Dutch Struggle for Liberty — Charles V in Spain — ^Philip II

— The Low Countries, i 500-1 598 338

Charles V in Spain, 338 — The Revolt of the Towns, 338 — The Officials of Charles V in Spain and in Flanders, 339 — The Abdication and Death of Charles V, 340 — Succession of Philip II, 341 — The Reformation in Spain, 341 — Don Carlos, the Mad Prince, 342 — Don Juan of Austria, 1547-1578, 343 — The Battle of Lepanto, October 7, 1571, 343 — Exile of Antonio Perez, 344 — Philip II and the Succession in Portugal, 1581, 344 — Philip II the Representative of Catholicism in Europe, 345 — Spanish Government and the Religious Question in the Netherlands, 345 — The "Compromise of the Nobles," 1566, 346 — The "Beggars," 347 — The Duke of Alva and the Council of Blood, 347 — The War Against Spain from 1568 to 1573, 348 — The Pacification of Ghent, 1576, 349 — Don Juan of Austria in the Low Countries, Ï577"i578, 350 — The Political Union of Utrecht, 1579, 350—

CONTENTS xiii

The Assassination of William of Orange, 1584, 351 — Maurice of Nassau, 351 — The Economie Situation in the Low Countries, 352 — The Decadence of Spain, 353 — Judgment upon the Reign of Philip II, 353.

Chapter XXII

Youth and Education of Francis I, 354 — The Battle of Marignano, 1515, 354 — Treaties with the Swiss and the Pope, 1516, 356 — The Rivalry of Francis I and Charles V, 357 — The Field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520, 358— The First War Between Francis and Charles V, 1520-1526, 359 — The Treason of Constable Bourbon, 1523, 360 — The War in Italy and in Provence, 361 — The Battle of Pavia, 1525, 361 — The Treaty of Madrid, 1526, 362 — The Second War with Charles V, 1526-1529, 363 — The Sack of Rome, 363 — The Treaty of Cambrai, 1529, 364 — The New Foreign Policy of Francis I, 365 — The Third War with Charles V, 1536-1538, 366 — The Fourth War, 1542-1544, 367 — The Treaties of Crespy, 1544, and of Ardres, 1546, 367 — The Death of Francis I, 1547, 368 — Henry II, 1547-1559, 368 — The Factions of the Court, 368 — First Years of Henry II, 369 — Henry's War Against Charles V, 369 — Abdication of Charles V, I555> 370— The War with Philip II, 371 — The Treaty of Cateau- Cambrésis, 1559, 372 — Results of the Italian Wars, 372 — The Death of Henry II, 1559, 373.

CHAPTER XXIII Social and Political France in the First Half of the XVI

Century 374

The Absolute Monarchy, 374 — The Court of the King, 375 — The Régime of Women, 376 — The Life of the Nobles at Court, 377 — The Châteaux, 378 — The Government under the Great Officers of the Crown, 379 — The Councils, 381 — The Governors and Intendants, 382 — The Estates General, 383 — The Parlement, 383 — The Presidencies, and the Sale of Offices, 384 — The Concordat of 1516, 385 — The Opposition to the Absolute Monarchy, 386 — The Finances of the Realm, 387 — The State of the Army. The Cavalry, 387— The Infantry, 388— The Artillery, 389 — The Marine, 390 — The Material Prosperity of France, 391 — Bernard Palissy, 393 — Commerce, 394 — Industry, 395.

CHAPTER XXIV The Reformation in France, 151 5 to 1598 397

The Reformation under Francis I, 397 — ^The Reformation under Henry II, 398 — The Reign of Francis II, 1559-1560, 399 — xiv CONTENTS

PAGE

The Conspiracy of Amboise Against Francis II, 400 — The Reign of Charles IX, 1560-1574, 400 — The Estates at Orléans, and at Pontoise, 1560-1561, 401 — The Colloquy of Poissy, 1561, 402 — The Beginning of the Religious Wars, 403 — The First Civil War, 1562-1563, 404 — The Interview at Bayonne, 1565, 405 — Ordinance of Moulins, 405 — The Second Civil War, 1567- 1568, 405 — The Third Civil War, 1568-1570, 406 — Coligny's Projects, 407 — The Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, August 24, 1572, 408 — The Fourth Civil War, 1572-1574, 409 — The Reign of Henry III, 1574-1589, 410 — The Fifth Civil War, 1575-1576, 410 — The Catholic League, 1576, 411 — The Sixth Civil War, 1576-1577, 413 — The Seventh Civil War, 1580-1581, 413 — Claim of Henry of Bourbon, 413 — The Eighth Civil War, 1586-1589, 414 — The Second Estates General at Blois, 1588, 415 — The Siege of Paris. Assassination of Henry III, 1589, 416 — The Results of the Religious Wars, 416.

Chapter XXV

The Youth of Henry IV, 419 — Henry's Accession, 1589, 420 — Henry's Struggle for the Crown, 1589-1590, 421 — The Battle of Ivry, 1590, 423 — The Siege of Paris, 1590, 423 — The Excesses of the League, 425 — The Satire " Ménipée," 425 — The Abjuration of Henry IV, 1593, 427 — Henry IV Master of France, 428 — War Against the Spanish, 1595-1598, 430 — Peace of Vervins, 1598, 431 — The Edict of Nantes, 1598, 431.

Chapter XXVI

France in 1598, 433 — Sully, 434 — The Government of Henry IV, 435 — Classes of Society, 436 — Financial Reforms, 437 — Agriculture, 439 — Industries, 44CH— Commerce and the Canals, 441 — The Army, 442.

CHAPTER XXVII Central, Eastern, and Northern Europe in the XVI Century . 444

General Conditions, 444 — Switzerland, 444 — The Emperors, 1555-1598, 444 — The Religious Question in Germany, 1555-1598, 445 — The Turks. The Predecessors of Solyman, 1481-1520, 446 — Solyman the Magnificent, 1 520-1 566. The Siege of Rhodes, 446 — Solyman in Hungary, 1526-1566, 446 — Turkish Diplomacy in the XVI Century, 447 — The Family of Solyman, 448 — Solyman's Successors, 448 — Denmark, 1340-1439, 449 — The Union of Calmar, 449 — German Kings in Denmark. Christian II,

CONTENTS XV

143 5-1 5 59, 450 — Denmark to the End of the XVI Century. The Holstein Dynasty, 451 — Sweden Prior to Gustavus Vasa, 452 — Gustavus Vasa, 1533-1560, 452 — The Successors of Gustavus Vasa, 1560-1598, 453 — Russia in the XIV and XV Centuries, 454 — The Lithuanians and the Poles, 454 — Ivan III, the Great, 1462-1505, 455 — Ivan IV, the Terrible, 1533-1584, 455 — The " Thousand " and the Pretorian Militia, 456 — The Successors of Ivan the Terrible, 457 — Russia in the XVI Century, 457 — The Religious Spirit and Poetry, 458 — Foreigners in Russia, 458 — Conclusion, 459.

CHAPTER I GENERAL SURVEY OF EUROPE AT THE END OF THE Xni CENTURY

1. Europe from 1270 to 1598. — During the period between 1270 and 1598 there vanished from the European mind forever the dream of that political unity which the recollection of antiquity had kept alive. The German Empire within the same time relaxed its hold upon Italy, Switzerland, the Low Countries, Provence, and Franche-Comté; and, by making the imperial crown hereditary in the house of Hapsburg, permitted the formation in the center of Europe of a group of independent states. Italy, cut in two by the Papal States, remained distracted and exposed to the aggression of the foreigner, while France drove the English out of her territory, and rounded out her natural boundaries at the expense of the Empire and of Spain. Spain, too, lost the Netherlands abroad, and expelled the Moors at home. England, forced from the continent, extended her dominion over Scotland and Ireland. The Scandinavian states began to exert in European affairs an influence which was to prove transitory. A new Mussulman invasion, that of the Turks, during the XV century, resulted in establishing a permanent military power upon the ruins of the Greek Empire, and finally, the PolisH Slavs formed a state as brilliant as it was transient, while the Russian Slavs, reserved for a greater destiny, gradually became conscious of their own national existence.

The idea of political unity had been only a dream; but the triumphs of the Papacy during the XII and XIII centuries had almost made actual the idea of religious unity. Yet the heresies of the XIV and XV centuries, and the Protestant Reformation of the XVI, destroyed it too, forever. Coincident with these changes, and with the religious agitation, came the intellectual Renaissance, which was favored by the discovery of the art of

2 THE END OF THE XHI CENTURY

printing, which in its turn resulted in the advancement of thought, of art, and of science. Finally the great maritime explorations which opened a New World to the activity of Europe completed the transformation which marks the. period we are to study.

2. The Great Interregnum. — In 1250, the last of the great Swabian emperors, Frederick H, had just died, broken by domestic disappointment, and by his long struggle with the Papacy. Too much occupied in Italy, he had allowed the strong German vassals, the Guelfs of Hanover, the Ascanians of Saxony and Brandenburg, the Wittelsbachs of Bavaria, and the Przemyslids of Bohemia, to increase their independence daily. His successor, Conrad IV, ruled scarcely four years, and never bore the title of Emperor. His son, Conradin, endeavored to maintain himself in Italy with the support of Manfred, the most energetic of the sons of Frederick II, but, beaten by Charles of Anjou, Conradin was captured and put to death.