Elementary chemistry, theoretical and practical

Front matter

Class Q_X1 30

Book

£9

Preface

The design of the present volume is to offer to the student commencing the subject of Chemistry, in a compact and inexpensive forin, an outline of the general principles of that science, and a history of the more important among the very numerous bodies which Che mical Investigations have made known to us. The work has no pretensions to be considered a complete treatise on the subject, but is intended to serve as an introduction to the larger and more comprehensive systematic works in our own language and in those of the Continent, and especially to prepare the student for the perusal of original memoirs, which, in conjunction with practical instruction in the laboratory, can alone afford a real acquaintance with the spirit of research and the resources of Chemical Science.

It has been my aim throughout to render the book as practical as possible, by detailing, at as great length as the general plan permitted, many of the working processes of the scientific laboratory, and by exhibiting, by the aid of numerous wood-engravings, the most useful forms of apparatus, with their adjustments and methods of use.

As one principal object was the production of a convenient and useful class-book for pupils attending my own lectures, I have been induced to adopt in the book the plan of arrangement followed in the lectures themselves, and to describe the non-metallic elements and some of their most important compounds before discussing the subject of the general philosophy of Chemical Science, and even

(vii)

Vlll PREFACE.

before describing the principle of the equivalent quantities, or explaining the use of the written symbolical language now universal among chemists. For the benefit of those to whom these matters are already familiar, and to render the history of the compound bodies described in the earlier part of the work more complete, I have added in foot-notes the view adopted of their Chemical constitution, expressed in symbols.

I have devoted as much space as could be afforded to the very important subject of Organic Chemistry; and it will, I believe, be found that there are but few substances of any general interest which have been altogether omitted, although the very great number of bodies to be described in a limited number of pages rendered it necessary to use as much brevity as possible.

GEO. FOWNES.

University College, London, October 5, 1847.

ADVERTISEMENT

THIRD LONDON EDITION,

The correction of this Edition for the press was the daily occupation of Professor Fownes, until a few hours previous to his death in January, 1849.

His wish and his endeavour, as seen in his manuscript, were to render it as perfect and as minutely accurate as possible.

When he had finished the most important part of the Organic Chemistry, where the most additions were required, he told me he should "do no more," — he had "finished his work."

At his request I have corrected the press throughout, and made a few alterations that appeared desirable in the only part which he had left unaltered, the Animal Chemistry.

The index and the press have also been corrected throughout by his friend Mr. Robert Murray.

H Bence Jones, M.D.

30, Grosvenor Street, Jan., 1850.

(ix)

ADVERTISEMENT

FOURTH LONDON EDITION

It lias been the endeavour of the Editors to include in the present edition of the Manual the progress of Chemistry since the Author's death.

The foundation which he laid, and the form which he gave to the work, remain untouched. But time has rendered it necessary that each portion should be revised ; and a few repairs, and some considerable additions, especially in Organic Chemistry, have been made. Thus, several of the chapters on the Alcohols, the Organic Bases, Colouring Matters, &c, have been almost re-written.

Still, such changes only have been made as the Editors believed the Author himself would have desired, if his life had been spared to Science.

II. Bence Jones.

A. W. Hofmann.

London, September, 1852.

(xi)

TABLE OF CONTENTS,

PAGE

Introduction , « 25

Part I. Physics

Of density and specific gravity.

Methods of determining the specific gravities of fluids and solids 27

Construction and application of the hydrometer 32

Of the physical constitution of the atmosphere, and of gases in

GENERAL.

Elasticity of gases. — Construction and use of the air-pump 34

Weight and pressure of the air. — Barometer 37

Law of Mariotte; relations of density and elastic force; correction of

volumes of gases for pressure 38

Heat.

Expansion. — Thermometers 41

Different rates of expansion among metals; compensation-pendulum 44

Danieli's pyrometer , 45

Expansion of liquids and gases. — Ventilation. — Movements of the atmosphere 46

Conduction of heat 52

Change of state. — Latent heat 52

Ebullition; steam 54

Distillation 58

Evaporation at low temperatures 59

Vapour of the atmosphere; hygrometry 61

Liquefaction of permanent gases 62

Production of cold by evaporation , 64

Capacity for heat. — Specific heat &d

Sources of heat 68

2 (xiii)

XIV CONTENTS.

Light.

page

Reflection, refraction, and polarization of light 71

Chemical rays 77

Radiation, reflection, absorption, and transmission of heat 79

Magnetism.

Magnetic polarity; natural and artificial magnets 86

Terrestrial magnetism 88

Electricity.

Electrical excitation; machines 92

Principle of induction ; accumulation of electricity 93

Voltaic electricity 97

Thermo-electricity. — Animal electricity 99

Electro-magnetism ; magneto-electricity 100

Electricity of steam 103

Part II. Chemistry Of The Elementary Bodies

Non-metallic elements.

Hydrogen; water; binoxide of hydrogen 110

Nitrogen; atmospheric air ; compounds of nitrogen and oxygen 120

Carbon; carbonic oxide ; carbonic acid , 127

Sulphur; compounds of sulphur and oxygen 131

Phosphorus; compounds of phosphorus and oxygen 137

Chlorine; hydrochloric acid. — Compounds of chlorine and oxygen 139

Fluorine 149

Compounds formed by the union of the non-metallic elements among themselves.

Compounds of carbon and hydrogen. — Light carbonetted hydrogen; olefiant

gas; coal and oil-gnses. — Combustion, and the structure of flame 153

Nitrogen and hydrogen; ammonia 162

CONTENTS. XV

PAG 3

Sulphur, selenium, and phosphorus, with hydrogen 163

Nitrogen, "with chlorine and iodine; chloride of nitrogen 167

Other compounds of non-metallic elements 168

Chlorine, with sulphur and phosphorus 168

Dn the general principles of chesiical philosophy.

Nomenclature 170

Laws of combination by weight 172

By volume . 177

Chemical symbols ISO

The atomic theory 182

Chemical affinity 1S3

Electro-chemical decomposition; chemistry of the voltaic pile 187

Metals.

General properties of the metals 197

Crystallography 202

Isomorphism 209

Polybasic acids 212

Binary theory of the constitution of salts 213

Beryllium (glucinum) 250

Yttrium, cerium, lanthanium, and didymium 251

Zirconium. — Thorium 252

Manufacture of glass, porcelain, and earthenware 252

Iron 259

Aridium 266

Zinc 272

Lead 279

Tin 282

XVI CONTENTS.

PAOE

Tungsten 284

Tantalum (columbium) 286

Niobium and pelopium 286

Titanium 287

Gold 299

Palladium 311

Rhodium 312

Part III. Organic Chemistry

introduction 316

Law of substitution 317

tne ultimate analysis of organic bodies 320

Empirical and rational formulae 329

Determination of the density of the vapours of volatile liquids .... 330 Saccharine and amylaceous substances, and the products of their

alteration 333

Cane and grape-sugars; sugar from ergot of rye; sugar of diabetes insipidus; liquorice-sugar; milk-sugar; mannite 333

Starch; dextrin; starch from Iceland-moss ; inulin ; gum; pectin; lignin .. 337

Oxalic and saccharic acids 341

Xyloidin; pyroxylin; niucic acid 344

Suberic, mellitic, rhodizonic, and croconic acids 345

Fermentation of sugar. — Alcohol 345

Lactic acid 349

Ether, and ethyl-compounds 351

Sulphovinic, phosphovinic, and oxalovinie acids 358

Heavy oil of wine 362

defiant gas; Dutch liquid; chlorides of carbon 362

CONTENTS. XVII

PAGE

Ethionic and isethionic acids 365

Chloral, &c 366

Mercaptan ; xanthic acid 367

Aldehyde; aldehydic acid; acetal 309

Chloracetic acid 375

Acetone 376

Kakodyl ... 377

Substances more oe less allied to alcohol.

Wood-spirit; methyl-compounds 3S1

Sulphomethylic acid 384

Formic acid; chloroform 385

Formomethylal ; methyl-mercaptan ,.... 387

Sulphamylic acid; valerianic acid 390

Chlorovalerisic and chlorovalerosic acids , 393

Fusel-oil from grain-spirit; general view of the alcohols 393

Bitter-almond-oil and its products; benzoyl-compounds 396

Benzoic-acid ; sulphohenzoic acid; benzone and benzol 396

Sulphobenzide and hyposulphobenzic acid 398

Nitrobenzol, azobenzol, &c 399

Formobenzoic acid; hydrobenzamide ; benzoin; benzile; benzilic acid;

benzimide, &c 400

Hippuric acid 402

Homologues of benzoyl-series 403

Salicin; salicyl and its compounds 403

Chlorosamide. — Phloridzin. — Cumarin 405

Cinnamyl and its compounds ; cinnamic acid ; chloro-cinnose 407

Vegetable acids.

Tartaric acid 410

Racemic acid 413

Citric acid 413

Aconitic or equisetic acid 414

Malic acid 414

Fumaric and maleic acids 416

Tannic and gallic acids , 416

AZOTIZED ORGANIC PRINCIPLES OF SIMPLE CONSTITUTION.

Cyanogen; paracyanogen ; hydrocyanic acid 420

Amygdalin; amygdalic acid 423

Metallic cyanides 424

Cyanic,, cyanuric, and fulminic acids 426

Chlorides, &c, of cvanogen 429

2*

XVJU CONTENTS.

PAGE

Ferro- and Arrricyanogen, and their compounds; Prussian blue 430

Cobaltocyanogen ; nitroprussides 433

Sulphocyanogen, and its compounds; selenocyanogen ; rnelam; melamine;

ammeline; ammelide , 434

Urea, and uric acid 436

Allantoin ; alloxan ; alloxanic acid ; mesoxalic acid ; mykomelinic acid ;

parabanic acid ; oxaluric acid ; tbionuric acid ; uramile ; alloxantin ;

murexide; murexan 438

Xantbic and cystic oxides 443

The vegeto-alkalis, and allied bodies.

Morphine, and its salts 444

Narcotine ; opianic and hemipinic acids ; cotarnine 445

Codeine; thebaine ; pseudo-morphine; narceine ; meconine 446

Meconic acid 446

Cinehonine and quinine; quinoidine 447

Kinic acid; kinone; hydrokinone 448

Strychnine and brucine ; veratrine . 449

Conicine; nicotine; sparteine; harmaline; harmine; caffeine or theine;

theobromine; berberine ; piperine; hyoscyamine; atropine; solanine;

aconitine; delphinine; emetine; curarine 450

Gentianln; populin; daphnin ; hesperidin ; elaterin ; antiarin ; picrotoxin ;

asparagin; santonin 451

Organic bases of artificial origin.

Bases of the ethyl-series. — Ethylamine ; biethylamine ; triethylamine ;

oxide of tetrethyl-ammonium 455

Bases of the methyl-series. — Methylamine; bimethylamine; trimethyla-

mine; oxide of tetramethyl-ammonium 457

Bases of the amyl-series. — Amylamine ; biamylamine ; triamylamine ;

oxide of tetramyl-ammonium 458

Bases of the phenyl-series. — Aniline; chloraniline; nitraniline; cyaniline;

melaniline , 459

Bases homologous to aniline. — Toluidine ; xylidine; cumidine. Naphthali-

tline; chloronicine 4G2

Mixed bases. — Ethylaniline; biethylaniline ; oxide of triethylamyl-ammo-

nium ; biethylamylamine ; oxide of methylobiethylamyl-ammonium ;

methylethylamylamine; ethylamylaniline ; oxide of methyl-ethyl-amylo-

phenyl-ammonium 463

Bases of uncertain constitution.

Chinoline 464

Kyanol; leucol; picolinc 465

Petinine 465

Furfurine 465

CONTENTS. XIX

PAGE

Fucusine ; amarine; thiosinnamine . 466

Thialdinc ; alanine 467

Phosphorus-bases 468

Antimony-bases r 469

Organic colouring principles.

Indigo; white indigo; sulphindylic acid 470

Isatin; anilie and picric acids ; chrysanilic and an thranilic acids 471

Litmus — lecanorin; orcin ; orcein, &c 474

Cochineal, madder, dye-woods, &c 477

Chrysammic, chrysolepic, and styphnic acids 479

Oils and fats.

Fixed oils ; margarin, stearin, and olein ; saponification, and its products ;

glycerin 480

Palm and cocoa-oils. — Elaidin and elaidic acid 483

Suberic, succinic, and sebacic acids 484

Butter. — Butyric, caproic, caprylic, and capric acids 485

Wax; spermaceti; cholesterin ; cantharidin 486

Acrolein; acrylic acid 487

Products of the action of acids on fats 487

Castor-oil; caprylic alcohol 488

Volatile oils. — Oils of turpentin, lemons, aniseed, cumin, cedar, gaultheria,

valerian, peppermint, lavender, rosemary, orange-flowers, rose-petals 488

Camphor; camphoric acid 492

Oils of mustard, garlic, onions, &c 492

Resins. — Caoutchouc 493

Balsams. — Toluol, styrol 494

Components of the animal body.

Albumin, fibrin, and casein; protein 49g

Gelatin and chondrin 500

Kreatin and kreatinine 502

Composition of the blood ; respiration; animal heat 503

Chyle; lymph; mucus; pus 507

Milk; bile; urine; urinary calculi 508

Nervous substance ; membranous tissue ; bones 516

The function of nutrition in the vegetable and animal kingdoms 513

Products of the destructive distillation, and slow putrefactive change of organic matter.

Substances obtained from tar. — Paraffin; eupione; picamar; kapnomor; eedriret ; kreosote; chrysen and pyren „ 523

XX CONTENTS.

PAOB

Coal-oil. — Carbolic acid (hydrate of oxide of phenyl) 526

Naphthalin and paranaphthalin 529

Petroleum, naphtha, and other allied substances. 530

&.JPPENDIX.

Hydrometer tables. — Table of the tension of the vapour of water at different temperatures. — Table of the proportion of real alcohol in spirits of different densities. — Analyses of the mineral waters of Germany. — Table of weights and measures 533

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

BY WOOD-CUTS.

Fig. Pa?o

1 Specific-gravity bottle ■-.. 28

2 " « 29

3 « " 29

4 " * 29

5 " " 30

7 Hydrometer 32

8 Urinometer 32

10 Elasticity of gases 34

11 Single air-pump 35

12 Double " 36

13 Improved" 36

14 " * 37

15 Barometer 38

16 " 39

17 « 40

18 Expansion of solids 41

19 " liquids 41

20 " gases 41

21 Differential thermometer 43

22 " " 43

23 Difference of expansion in metals 44

24 Gridiron pendulum 44

26 Compensation balance 45

27 Daniell's pyrometer 45

28 Expansion of mercury 47

29 Atmospheric currents 50

30 " " 50

31 « « 51

32 Boiling paradox 55

33 Steam-bath 57

34 Steam-engine 57

35 Distillation 58

36 Liebig's condenser 59

37 Tension of vapour 59

39 Wet-bulb hygrometer 62

(xxi)

XX11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

40 Condensation of gases 63

41 Thilorier's apparatus 64

42 Cold by evaporation 65

43 "Wollaston's cryophorus 65

44 Daniell's hygrometer 65

45 Reflection of light 72

46 Refraction of light 72

47 " " 72

48 « " 73

49 Spectrum 74

50 " 74

51 Polarization of light 75

52 « « 76

53 " " 76

54 Reflection of heat 79

55 " " 80

m

56 Effects of electrical current on the magnetic needle 82

57 " " " " 82

58 Current produced by heat 83

59 Melloni's instrument for measuring transmitted heat 83

60 Magnetic polarity 87

61 " " 87

62 Electro repulsion 93

63 Electroscope S3

64 Electric polarity 93

65 Electrical machine 95

67 Leyden jar 96

68 Electrophorus 97

69 Volta'spile 98

70 Crown of cups 98

71 Cruikshank's trough 99

72 Effect of electrical current on the magnetic needle 100

73 Astatic needle 101

74 Magnetism developed by the electrical current 101

75 " " " " 102

76 Electro-magnet 102

77 Apparatus for oxygen 105

78 Hydro-pneumatic trough 106

79 Transferring gases 107

80 Pepy's hydro-pneumatic apparatus 107

81 Apparatus for hydrogen Ill

82 Levity of hydrogen HI

83 Diffusion of gases 112

84 Daniell's safety-jet 113

85 Musical sounds by hydrogen 114

86 CatalyVc effect of platinum 115

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XX1U

Fig. Page

87 Decomposition of water ■ 116'

88 Eudiometer of Cavendish 316

S9 Analysis of water .-. 116

90 Preparation of nitrogen 120

91 Analysis of air 121

92 lire's eudiometer 122

93 Preparation of nitric acid 123

9i " protoxide of nitrogen 125

95 Crystalline form of carbon 127

96 " " " 127

97 " " " 127

98 " " " 127

99 Preparation of carbonic acid 129

100 Mode of forming caoutchouc connecting-tubes 129

101 Crystalline form of sulphur 131

102 Crystals of sulphur m 131

103 Crystalline form of sulphur 131

104 Preparation of phosphorus 137

106 " hydrochloric acid . 142

107 Safety-tube 143

108 Combustible under water 145

109 Preparation of hydriodic acid 147

111 Blast furnace 157

112 Reverberatory furnace 157

113 Structure of flame 15S

114 Mouth blowpipe 159

115 Structure of blowpipe flame 159

116 Argand spirit-lamp 159

118 Mitchell's " 16f.

120 Davy's safe " 161

121 Hemming's safety-jet 161

122 Effect of metallic coil 161

123 Apparatus for sulphuretted hydrogen 164

124 Multiple proportions 181

125 Water in its usual state 1SS

126 " undergoing electrolysis 189

127 Voltameter 190

128 Decomposition without contact of metals 191

129 Wollaston's voltaic battery 193

130 Daniell's constant " 193

132 Electrotype 195

133 Lead-tree I9a

XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig. Page

134 Wire-drawing 19S

J35 Wollaston's goniometer 203

136 Reflecting " 204

137 " " principles of 205

138 Crystals, regular system 206

139 " regular prismatic system 206

110 " right prismatic system 207

141 " oblique prismatic 6ystem 207

142 " doubly oblique prismatic system .. 203

143 Crystals, rbombohedral sj'stem 208

144 " passage of cube to octahedron 209

145 " " " octahedron to tetrahedron 209

146 Alkalimeter 227

147 Apparatus fov determining carbonic acid 228

148 " " " " « 229

149 Iron manufacture. Blast-furnace ; , 264

150 Crystals of arsenious acid 293

151 Subliming tube for arsenic 294

152 Marsh's test 295

153 Weighing tube » 321

154 Combustion 321

155 Chauffer 322

156 Water tube 322

157 Carbonic acid bulbs 322

158 Apparatus complete 323

159 Bulb for liquids 324

160 Comparative determination of nitrogen 325

161 Pipette 325

162 Absolute estimation of nitrogen 326

163 Varentrap's and Will's method 327

164 Determination of the density of vapours 330

165 Starch granules 338

166 Preparation of ether 361

167 " defiant gas. 363

163 " Dutch liquid 363

169 Catalysis 371

L70 Preparation of kakodyle 379

171 " benzoic acid , 397

172 " tannic acid 417

173 Uric acid crystals 43S

174 Blood globules 504

UT5 Pus " 508

177 Trommer's test 514

178 Uric acid calculus 515

179 Urate of ammonia calculus 515

J80 Fusible calculus 516

181 Mulberry calculus 516

MANUAL OF CHEMISTRY,