Parks and park engineering

Preface

IN an age of many books every author must make his apology for a new volume. The output of engineering treatises and text-books is so great that for a time at least, in certain branches, further additions should be made only for very good and exceptional reasons. The author of this httle book beUeves that by reason of the dearth of information on the specialized subject treated, a sufficient reason exists for the publication of his manuscript, which for several years in abbreviated form he has used in his classes at Lafayette College.

The magnitude of the park movement in America is only beginning to be appreciated by the average wellinformed person. Our larger cities already have their parks, most of them but recently acquired, and it will not be long before all of our American cities will have them also — not merely a few small city squares, but extensive modern parks, reservations and playgrounds, connected by parkways and boulevards.

This book is prepared principally for the benefit of the young and inexperienced engineer of construction. The author hopes that it may be found useful to members of newly formed park associations and commissions; and that its earher articles may be of help to pubUc-spirited men who may be considering the ways and means of securing for their own communities the great benefits which flow from an ample and well-coordinated park system. It also iv PREFACE may contain valuable suggestions to engineers and others who, though not trained in the art, may be engaged in the work of development of private estates.

While the master mind in the conception and design of our largest and best park systems is the landscape architect, it must be understood that the execution of his general plans is peculiarly the function of the engineer, as is also the design of the engineering features. The art of the park engineer, though a specialty, is, however, not a narrow specialty. He must be proficient in matters pertaining to the acquisition of lands, and be well versed in a great variety of engineering operations, such as earth excavation, masonry, water-works and sewerage construction, road building and lighting, and occasionally the construction of steel and reinforced concrete bridges. He must also be a good expert witness.

Wherever possible the author acknowledges the kindness of those who have aided him with advice and information and of those who have furnished him with illustrations for his work.

He is under special obligation to Mr. John C. Olmsted, Landscape Architect, of Brookline, Mass., and to Mr. Howard J. Cole, of New York, formerly Engineer in Chief of the Essex County Park Commission.

William T. Lyle.

Chapter I DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS PAGB

The Social and Economic Need and the Economic Advantage 1

The Classification of Parks 6

Actual Results in Park Development in a Few Typical and Important Cases 7

Future Probabilities in Park Development 13

The Way to Obtain Parks 14

The Organization for Work 14

Chapter II General Requirements in the Selection of Park Lands 21

The Acquisition of Property 23

Topographical and Hydrographical Surveys 25

Chapter III DESIGN The Architectural Treatment

Requirements 36

The Engineering Design:

Underdrainage and Sewers 39

Piling and Bulkheads 53

Water Pipes and Fixtures 61

Paths and Drives 62

V vi CONTENTS

Chapter IV LABOR AND CONTRACTS PAQB

Day Labor versus Contract Work 74

Two Kinds of Contracts 75

Advertisement 76

Contractor's Examination of Plans 77

Contractor's Calculations 79

Sureties 79

Making out the Bid 81

Submitting the Proposals 82

Rejection of Bids 82

Awarding the Contract 82

Execution of the Contract 85

Payments and Extras 85

Penalty Clauses 86

Chapter V Beginning of Operations 90

Underdrainage and Sewers 90

Pile Driving 107

Water Pipes Ill

Paths and Drives 112

ILLUSTRATIONS

The Walnut Lane Bridge over the Wissahickon. . . . .Frontispiece

FAQS

Fig. 1. Swamp Land May be Utilized in Park Development 3

Fig. 2. A Typical Park System 11

Fig. 3. Submerged Land along the North River Later Filled in

and now a Part of Riverside Park 15

Fig. 4. The Same Reclaimed 19

Fig. 5. Gridiron System of Survey for Parks 26

Fig. 6. Survey Notes 28

Fig. 7. Topsoil Stripping, Piling and Grading 29

Fig. 8. Modified Gridiron System of Survey for Parkways 31

Fig. 9. Gauging the Discharge of a Stream 33

Fig. 10. Topsoil PUe 37

Fig. 11. Machine for Stripping Topsoil and Grading 37

Fig. 12. Method of Providing Underdrainage for Damp or Swampy

Soil 40

Fig. 13. The New Bay Ridge Parkway. Surface Water Carried

in Paved Gutters 41

Fig. 14. Park Walk along Steep Terrace. Paved Gutters 45

Fig. 15. Method of Collecting Surface Water from Grass Gutters. . . 47

Fig. 16. Park Walk. Drainage in Grass Gutters 49

Fig. 17. Method of Collecting Surface Water from Paved Gutters. . 52

Fig. 18. Timber Bulkhead Forming Artificial Shore of Lake 55

Fig. 19. Drainage of Retaining Walls 55

Fig. 20. Sod Steps 59

Fig. 21. Lawn Hydrant 63

Fig. 22. Water Crane 63

Fig. 23. Design of Paths 66

Fig. 24. Correct Entrance 68

Fig. 25. Incorrect Entrance 68

Fig. 26. Rooter Plow 83

Fig. 27. Wheel Scraper 83

Fig. 28. Pulsometer 83

Fig. 29. Pile Driver— Land Machine 87

Fig. 30. Method of Giving Line and Grade for Sewers 91

vii vm ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 31. Steam Shovel Making the First Cut 91

Fig. 32. The Same Work Farther Advanced 95

Fig. 33. Dredging at Weequahic Park, Essex Co., N. J 101

Fig. 34. Dredging at Lake Nokomis, Minneapolis 105

Fig. 35. Muck Excavation at Westside Park, Newark, N. J 109

Fig. 36. Muck Excavation at Westside Park, Newark, N. J 113

Fig. 37. Pressure Distributor for Sprinkling Roads 121

Fig. 38. Pavement Repairs at Boston 121

PARKS AND PARK ENGINEERING

Chapter I The Desirability And Acquisition Of Parks

THE Social Need of Parks. In view of the rapid growth and the increasing densities of population of our American cities, the need of parks, breathing spaces, playgrounds and parkways is becoming more and more imperative. Compact urban development has created a need which should be met by the municipal governments responsible for the condition. Our cities are recognizing the necessity and moral obligation of providing places for rest, recreation and wholesome open-air amusements. Excepting in a few of our larger cities, such as New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Boston and Chicago, the movement is less than twenty-five years old, and even in these places great advances along new and better lines have been made in the last two decades. With new conditions new needs are born, and though our parks have supplied fairly well an urgent need, many of them in the near future will have to be remodeled in order that they may be increasingly useful, not only for an increasing population, but also to each individual in the community in need of the health advantages which it is possible for them to offer.

The Economic Need. The policy of delay in the purchase of park lands, if it may be called a policy, is certain to be an expensive one. As an example of this may be cited the fact that for three parks covering less than ten acres in the congested portion of the East Side, New York recently paid more than it paid for Central Park, which has an area of 840 acres. As another example, Hudson County, New Jersey, has paid for its parks an average of over $3000 per acre, and for some property acquired by condemnation proceedings as high as $23,000 per acre; whereas Essex County, adjacent, has purchased 3000 acres of mountain land at a cost of only $500 per acre. Compelhng the present generation to bear the entire burden of purchase is not advocated, but by incurring a bonded indebtedness, the coming generation will bear its share of an expense which, if not incurred now, will increase to such an extent as to render, in many cases, the purchase almost impossible.

The judicious selection and purchase of park lands and reservations is a far-sighted policy, which like the laying out of wide streets, is sure to be financially profitable in the long run.

It is a well-known fact to the expert that some of the most imdesirable lands from the standpoint of the builder and real estate broker are the very best from the standpoint of the landscape architect. Swampy lands, foul water courses and steep slopes possess great possibiUties for park development. A double service is thus rendered — ^primarily, the construction of parks — secondarily and incidentally, the elimination of municipal nuisances which are frequently of a very dangerous character. The foul and unsightly channel and its surrounding lands are transformed by the construction of sewers and the proper engi-

T3 C

THE ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE neering operations and subsequent planting into the most attractive of parks, the channel itself providing what is an especially pleasing and refreshing feature, a beautiful water course.

The accompanying illustration shows a piece of swamp land, almost worthless, which is now a part of the Weequahic Reservation of the Essex County (N. J.) Park Commission. The swamp has been dredged and the water level has been raised. It is now a very picturesque lake, surrounded by attractively planted uplands.

There are in almost every county spots of natural beauty which it is the duty of the present generation to preserve. The national government recognizes this principle in its great reservations, among which are the Yellowstone, Yosemite and Mount Rainier National Parks. One of the most impardonable losses in this connection was the cutting of the " Sherwood Forest " at Philadelphia, a tract of forty acres of virgin timber actually within the city limits. This land, which afforded natural advantages of very unusual merit for park purposes, passed into the hands of real estate operators and now is part of the two-story dwellinghouse district of West Philadelphia.

The Economic Advantage. The laying out of parks increases the desirability of a town as a place of residence. Municipal boards of trade are realizing this principle in increasing measure. Park development enhances the value of neighboring real estate. New parkways and boulevards afford very desirable frontages, the very best to be had for residential purposes. Much might be written on the subject of real estate appreciation due to park development ; suffice it to mention here only a few illustrative cases. Real estate operators testify that the increased valuation in the vicinity of a properly regulated park will very soon pay for the original investment. The assessed valuation in 1856 of the three wards adjoining Central Park, New York, was $20,500,000. In 1873 it had risen to $236,100,000. The natural increase as obtained by averaging the gain in the other wards was found to be $53,000,000, making the earning capacity of the park for the three adjoining wards, $183,000,000. In three years the valuation of the wards surrounding Prospect Park in Brooklyn rose $7,000,000, which was twice the cost of the land acquired for the park. The wisdom of the '' Back Bay " improvement at Boston was certified in an increased valuation of surrounding property from 1877 to 1885 of $12,000,000 with a corresponding increase of revenue of $153,000. During this time new buildings were erected to the value of $10,000,000, giving a revenue of $128,000, making the total increased revenue, $281,000. In the city of Newark, property in the neighborhood of Branch Brook Park has increased in value to a marked extent, and to the Branch Brook development can be largely traced the great popularity of the Forest Hill residential section.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF PARKS

A convenient classification may be made thus: 1. National Parks; 2. State Parks; 3. County Parks; 4. City Parks; and 5. Parkways and Boulevards. The first two classes will not be treated in this discussion, since their character is principally that of great reservations of land of especial scenic and natural beauty. County Parks are usually more or less developed. They are suburban or rural in character and are usually of large area. City Parks include the old-fashioned city square and the modern city park whose development may be formal, informal, or both. When the governing board is a county park commission,

THE CLASSIFICATION OF PARKS city parks are classed as county parks. The Parkway and Boulevard are connecting arteries which join the parks of a system. The Boulevard is the more formal of the two and often is nothing more than a beautified avenue, while a Parkway is much broader, often about 400 feet wide, and may be laid out in a semi-informal manner.

Another classification used in some cities is, 1. City Parks; and 2. Outer Parks. The City Parks are those inside, and the Outer Parks those outside the city limits. The second division of this classification includes the reservation lands and the connecting parkways.

The accompanying map of the Essex County system, Fig. 2, page 11, shows a modern and scientific park development. But few of the original parkways as planned by Olmsted Brothers, the landscape architects, have been laid out, though some of these may come later.

ACTUAL RESULTS

The results of the last twenty-five years of this great movement have been especially remarkable, though a few of our older cities had parks prior to 1890. It is outside the scope of this book to make a full statement of park accomplishments in America, which are now very extensive, almost all of our larger cities having caught the spirit of the movement. In order, however, to give some idea of its development and magnitude, a few typical and important cases will be cited.

New York. The greatest pioneer work in America, though not the earUest, was the construction of Central Park. The land was purchased in 1856. The total acreage at present is 840 and the price paid for the land was $6,300,000. The total amount spent in bringing the park to its present condition is over $30,000,000. The park system now covers several thousand acres and includes Prospect Park in Brooklyn, one of our oldest parks, the Brooklyn Forest and Bronx Park with its Botanical and Zoological Gardens.

Philadelphia. The original plan in Philadelphia consisted of five small squares to which Independence Square was afterward added.

Fairmount Park dates back to 1812, when it contained five acres. It was enlarged in 1855 to forty-one acres and in 1867 to its present proportions, mainly in the interests of the public water supply drawn from the Schuylkill River. The Park Commissioners were able to prevent the contamination of the river as far as their jurisdiction extended and to exercise a wholesome influence upon the Councils in the matter of proper sewer construction to intercept the flow from the river. A very interesting report made by a Special Committee of the Commissioners ol Fairmount Park upon the Preservation of the Purity of the Water Supply, submitted October 11, 1867, and sent to the author through the courtesy of Mr. Carleton E. Davis, Chief of the Bureau of Water, and Mr. Thomas S. Martin, Secretary, contains full information in regard to this matter. In this connection it may be added that park lands may be located so as to combine the park needs with those of the water department. Several American cities have seen this advantage. Surface water supplies as impounded from small streams can be very satisfactorily guarded by the acquisition of the catchment area by the park department. This is one of the very best examples of municipal economy that can be mentioned.

The area of the Philadelphia parks is now over 5000 acres, 1000 acres of which is in Wissahickon Park, a beauti-

ACTUAL RESULTS 9 ful ravine development, one of the best features of the Philadelphia system.

The development of the water fronts of the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers is under contemplation as part of the general city plan.

The author here takes occasion to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Andrew W. Crawford, Recording Secretary of the City Parks Association, who has furnished information as to the parks of Philadelphia and other American cities.

Chicago. The movement here dates back to 1869. One of the features of the park system is the incorporation of extensive recreation parks and playgrounds which have been secured in the past fifteen years.

Preliminary plans according to Mr. Walter Wright, Secretary, Special Park Commission, are now being prepared for the construction of a great outer parkway system which will give Chicago a continuous belt of parks and parkways around the entire city. This work has been authorized by the State Legislature subject to the approval of the voters of Chicago, which approval was received at an election in November, 1914.

Boston. This is a city of many suburbs, each separate in its local interests and government. These different municipalities have jealously guarded their local autonomy, but have wisely united to provide the general necessities, such as water, sewerage and parks. These necessities have been secured through the help of the State Government, which has created metropolitan commissioners with authority to provide them. Each municipality now has its local water supply fed from the metropolitan main lines; its local sewerage system, discharging into the metropolitan trunk sewers; and its local parks, secured either before or after the appointment of the MetropoHtan Park Commission, which provide for local needs not met by the Metropolitan Parks. Boston has parks covering a total area of 500 acres; Cambridge has developed a frontage on the Charles River; and Lynn has acquired large tracts for park and water-supply purposes.

The Metropolitan Park Commission consisting of five unsalaried commissioners was created in 1892. Up to the present time it has purchased 10,250 acres of land, of which the largest tracts are the Blue Hills Reservation, twelve miles from the State House and easily reached by electric cars; and the Middlesex Fells Reservation, five miles from the State House. The metropolitan parks with their connecting parkways and seashore and riverbank reservations form a model system.

Essex County. With the exception of Military Park, a tract of but a few acres in the city of Newark and a few other small squares, Essex County had no parks up to the year 1895.

At a dinner in the city of Orange in January, 1894, a plan was suggested for obtaining parks and a meeting was soon after arranged and held in the rooms of the Board of Trade in Newark. Park committees from Newark and Orange were present and the plan previously suggested was approved. A committee was appointed to prepare a bill for the State Legislature which was promptly drafted and approved and then presented to the Senate at Trenton. It was passed and signed by the Governor early in May of the same year.

The bill authorized the presiding county judge to appoint a CoEomission of five persons to consider the advisability of laying out a system of parks and provided an appropriation of $10,000 to cover the salaries of assistants and

Courtesy Interstate Map Co., of Newark, N. J., engravers and publishers. Fig. 2.— a Typical Park System. 11

THE FUTURE PROBABILITIES 13

traveling expenses of the members of the Commission. The first Commission completed its work in 1895, after having reported favorably to the plan for parks, and suggested a practical plan.

A new bill was passed by the Legislature in 1895 for the creation of a second Commission to be appointed as before. This bill carried an appropriation of $2,500,000 of county funds and a referendum clause. At a special election the bill soon became operative. The necessary moneys were obtained by county bond issue by the Board of Freeholders and turned over to the Commission. Subsequent issues of bonds were authorized, the outstanding indebtedness now amounting to $6,000,000.

There are now five principal parks in the system with a total area of 3200 acres, most of which is mountain reservation.

THE FUTURE PROBABILITIES

The park movement is thus observed to be of recent origin. The United States in many respects has passed out from the period of mushroom growth into one of comparative stability. There are many evidences of this. FHmsy bridges are being replaced by permanent masonry structures; wooden buildings by those made of fire-proof materials; cheap city pavements by those of a permanent character; railroads are being straightened, and elevated or depressed where they pass through large cities; railroad property fine fences are being replaced by hedges after the EngHsh custom; and far-sighted business corporations are making provision not merely for the present, but for several decades to come. The policy of municipal wisdom calls for the immediate setting apart of park lands to be paid for by money raised on bond issues. This poUcy in many cases will be followed. In some respects it is along the movement on foot for the conservation of our national resources.

THE WAY TO OBTAIN PARKS

The methods adopted have already been stated. A brief simunary will be given.

1. Prehminary Agitation. Pubhc sentiment frequently crystallizes in the appointment of a park committee or in a resolution passed by a board of trade,

2. The Creation of a Commission. If the work involves several municipalities, as it usually does, a bill for the creation of a park commission with delegated powers can be introduced into the State Legislature.

3. How the Necessary Funds are Provided. These are usually obtained from the sale of bonds, whose issue is authorized by the State Government, the indebtedness being incurred by the county or district benefited.

THE ORGANIZATION FOR WORK

The working organization is made up about as follows:

1. A Counsel and perhaps assistants to give legal advice, to attend to claims and to examine contracts and agreements.

2. A Landscape Architect to make selection of lands for parks, parkways, reservations and playgrounds. It is the function of the landscape architect to prepare all grading and planting plans and to outline for the Architect (see 5) the general features of buildings, gateways, walls, steps and bridges.

3. A Purchasing Department to obtain options on properties likely to be acquired and to arrange for the pur-

THE ORGANIZATION FOR WORK 17

chase of properties already embodied in the scheme of the landscape architect.

4. An Engineering Department consisting of a chief engineer, assistant engineers, instrumentmen, chainmen, rodmen, inspectors and a chief gardener and his assistants. The police department as long as the engineering department is in existence is a part of it. When the work of land purchase and heavy construction is completed, it passes over to the Superintendent's Department (see 6). The work of the engineering department can be divided thus:

a. Property surveys of lands to be acquired with the accompanying searches in the office of the recorder of deeds, and the preparation of property descriptions to be incorporated in deeds of conveyance prepared by the counsel or his assistants.

b. Topographical surveys prepared for the use of the landscape architect in the preparation of his plans.

c. Designs of sewer, drainage, water-supply and lighting systems, together with the design of all the essential engineering features of walls and bridges.

d. The preparation, letting and supervision of all contracts for construction work. This includes the direction in detail of all construction operations.

e. Planting and gardening operations.

/. The maintenance of the work until it can be turned over to a Superintendent's Department, which need not be organized until the work is well under way or even completed.

g. The policing of all acquired areas. The police force consists of a chief and mounted and unmounted patrolmen with sometimes a few plain-clothes men.

5. An Architect, who prepares detail designs of various structures, such as buildings, gateways, steps and the architectural features of bridges.

6. A Superintendents Department, whose function it is to take over the work done by the Engineering Department and carry it to completion. This work consists of gardening and planting operations, construction work (generally by day labor), and the ultimate maintenance of the entire system. The pohce department eventually is transferred to this department.

7. A Clerical Force to transact the work of the Secretary and Treasurer of the Commission, to issue permits for use of playgrounds, and to keep open office.

8. A Title Guarantee Department. It is customary to employ a title guarantee company to pass on all property transactions.

All of these departments may report directly to the commission, though there is some variation in this matter.

Chapter II Lands And Surveys General Requirements In The Selection Of Park Lands

THIS is specifically a question of landscape architecture. It is also a matter of common sense. Many great mistakes, though not chargeable to the profession of the landscape architect, have been made in the selection of park lands. The following are the leading requirements:

1. Parks must be accessible. City parks should be so placed that all of the population can reach at least one park on foot. The larger county parks should be easily reached by carriage, automobile and trolley car. The fare on these car lines should be reasonable. Excessive charges should not be permitted.

2. It seems to be the modern idea that a park system should be a connected system, the various parks being joined by parkways or boulevards. This is regarded as a very essential matter.

3. A park should be located with regard to the other requirements of the territory in which it is placed. Central Park in New York City, although an asset of inestimable value, is so placed that it cuts off two of the main arteries of travel running north and south on Manhattan Island.

4. Parks should be planned with a distinct view of the requirements of the population to be benefited. The problem must be worked out for each individual case. The needs of the entire population must be considered with regard to wealth, culture, nationality, age, sex, density of population, etc. Drives, parkways and boulevards will principally benefit the wealthy. A fine landscape, beautiful architecture and opportunities for nature study meet the cultural requirements. The inherited traits of people of different national extraction should be regarded. The matter of age must also be carefully considered; while the older person will generally expect opportunities for quiet and rest, children and young people will need playgrounds and athletic fields. It may here be said that the playground movement has recently assumed enormous proportions as one of the best opportunities for civic improvement. The child should have his swing, sand box and wading pool; the young woman her tennis court, and the young man his baseball field and out-of-door gymnasium. Where the population is dense, the park would seem to be the only solution of the pressing problem of rest, recreation and amusement.

5. It is a fact well known to experts that lands which are poor from the point of view of the real estate operator are often the best for park development. Low and swampy lands which are usually festering spots in cities are among this class. A very good illustration of what is meant by this paragraph is found at Philadelphia, where portions of the Tacony, Pennypack and Cobbs Creek valleys are now on the city plan to be used for park purposes. These valleys are narrow and deep. If laid out in city blocks, the grade of the cross streets would be about that of the sides of the valleys. An enormous amount of filling would thus be required, the cost of which would have to be borne by the city. The cost of this filling alone would be more than the purchase price of the tracts for park purposes.

LAND SURVEY AND PURCHASE 23

THE ACQUISITION OF PROPERTY

The Survey. Before lands are taken over for park purposes, a survey is usually made by the engineering department. This is an easy matter when the boundaries are well defined by street lines, fences, stone monuments, hedges, stone walls or a sufficient number of blazed trees. It frequently happens, however, especially in rural reservations, that the landmarks, usually blazed trees, are partially or entirely gone. In such cases the determination of the boundaries becomes a difficult or impossible matter, and especially, as frequently happens, if the recorded deeds contain inaccurate or grossly incorrect descriptions. In all such cases the matter has to be adjusted between buyer and seller, and, if no agreement can be reached, the question is passed upon by a condemnation commission, to be described later on. In purchasing a large reservation, it is the usual practice for the engineering department to prepare a large map of the tract, locating the boundaries and the principal topographical features, such as brooks, buildings, etc. The surveys of the individual lots and, when surveys cannot be obtained, mapped deed descriptions are plotted on drawing paper or cardboard. These plots are then cut out and fitted together on the large map. Overlaps and underlaps are frequent in cheap rural lands and occasionally a triangular piece of land will have to be purchased twice.

Options. The policy of obtaining options on property likely to be acquired is a good one. Property owners can frequently be approached when they are in a favorable mood and advantageous agreements for the sale obtained subject to a definite time limit of purchase. These options may be obtained by members of the engineering force or by the purchasing agents.

Direct Purchase. Property to be taken over for park purposes on which no option has been obtained can almost always be purchased at a fair market price, it being to the advantage usually of the owners to sell, since, if they refuse, the matter can be taken before a condemnation commission and a forced sale brought about. The cost of litigation is sometimes great and the part borne by the owner frequently a total loss. Purchases are made through the purchasing agents.

Condemnations. The resort to this method of purchase is somewhat rare, since, as before stated, it is almost always to the advantage of the owner to sell. Condemnation proceedings for park lands are carried on about as follows. The method given is for the State of New Jersey: