The measurement of teaching efficiency

Preface

Efficiency in any work deals with details and particulars wliich are so numerous tliat standards and measures must be explicit and definite. To state that efficiency is the process by which to secure the maximum of result with the minimum of work and material is to stir up further inquiries as to what a good result is and how it may be attained. General directions and principles are here of little use for quiet effective action, and for products economically brought forth. On this account, any practical scheme for measuring the efficiency of teaching must be extremely detailed and specific.

In making five divisions for most of the merits there is no assumption on my part that any magic potency inheres in this number. It is simply convenient for purposes of classification, and sufficient for the detail necessary in distributing the constituent excellencies of any unit. Whatever unit or standard is taken can readily be divided into as many parts as one desires, whether the number be three, four, five six, etc. The ui

PREFACE

divisions and the enumerations outlined in the book have been found effective in measuring practical, classroom work and will be found inclusive enough to deal specifically with any situation which may arise. The categories employed have been kept as close as possible to the material, work, and results common in the school.

Due to the possibility offered in the New York Public School System for experimentation and investigation, and to the LehrfreiJieit to be found there, I have been able to develop the various standards presented, and to test them with teachers of various grades of efficiency or deficiency. I have had opportunity to make a close pedagogical study of almost two hundred teachers for this purpose. Two pamphlets which have been helpful are Tests of Efficiency in Teaching, by Superintendent E. B. Shallow, and Document No. 5, 1914, On Examining,

Training and Selecting Teachers, by Director A. Shiels of the Division of Research, Department of Education, New York.

Felix Arnold

IV co:n'tents

PART P^CE

I. Introduction.

1. On measurement in general 3

2. On methods of teaching in general 12

3. On application and technique in general.. 22 Tables ^^

II. The Teaching Process — Instruction and Discipline.

1. Preparation 39

2. Incentives ^^

Topcal outline and values 53

3. Visual appeal 55

4. Oral appeal 6 i

5. Manual appeal 80

6. Application and tecknique 91

III. Personality— Co-Operation.

1. Personality in general -7

2. Towards pupils 29

Topical outline and values 1C4

Common deficiencies 105

3. Towards visitors HO

Common deficiencies 117

4. Towards the school 120

Common deficiencies 126

5. School activities 129

6. Records and reports 133

7. The negative instance . ^ 136

Contents

PART

PAGE

IV. Kesults Of Insthuction — Expression.

Introduction

I

ON MEASUREMENT IN GENERAL

It is a popular superstition that human action, personality, and behavior, will be penned up and hindered when measured by logical categories and fixed units. But, just as the pound weight has not interfered with the production of butter, and the yardstick has not obstructed improvement in the manufacture of cotton or other goods, so methods in teaching, it may be assumed, will be free to go their own way, even when fixed standards are applied. The spirit can still go whither it listeth. Measurement must meekly follow, gather up the results, and give them a value. Analysis, in fact, will show that the method in great degree determines the standard, and may even become the standard which will be applied on future occasions. In the spiritual as in the material world, nature can be conquered only by submission.

"Weights and measures call to mind such units as pound, quart, or yard, and imply definite amoimts and quantities. A pound of steak is a pound of steak, a quart of milk is a quart of milk, a yard of wool is a yard of wool, here or elsewhere, now and to come — with, however, a qualification. The steak weighs a pound, but only for some purpose, as, exchange, food value, comparison, or other intent. The pound of steak, as such, must therefore be further qualified. It must have not more than a certain amount of connective tissue, or bone, or fat. It must be of a required age, and may be otherwise circumscribed. So, too, with milk. Milk is not only measured by the quart, but it must also be of grade A or grade B^ must be of limited age, and without chalk or other added ingredients. With woollen cloth, the goods must be all wool and of a yard or other determined width. Expert knowledge of the highest type is often demanded in appraising and evaluating qualitative characteris-

ON MEASUREMENT

tics of substances which, to the man behind the counter, are measured only by the yard, or pound, or other measure.

Serial valuation is implicit in practically all measurement, whether this be by volume, weight, length, or amount. To return to other homely instances, l&ve pounds of chicken are not only five pounds of chicken, but in addition the fowl must fit somewhere in the series : soup — fricassee — roast — capon. Tea likewise must fit in a scale of values determined only by a highly paid tester. So the story runs. Determination of such series and ability to give a substance its place in it require in most cases a specialized training and ability. Though, for the shop keeper and for the consumer, this qualitative valuation has been done, it can not be ignored. The pound, yard, or quart tell but a part of the story.

Any judgment which we make, as good or bad, or more or less, implies a series of values and placement within the series. General knowledge is crude and often contains for its standard the two or three values, as, lad — good — excellent. More specific knowledge not only extends the series, but also adds qualifying characteristics to its members, and closely analyses each one. The expert is so trained that he can define accurately the different units in a series, and give each of them a value.

Crude judgments, as, good — fair — poor, etc., are passed upon work in the school and the classroom. The judgment, poor — good — excellent, or, satisfactory — unsatisfactory, may in some cases be correct, and in most cases be honest. Honesty, however, does not preclude the possibility of ignorance or lack of training, nor does it always include a free and unbiased mind. The varying moods in which the supervising official finds himself, the different influences at play on various occasions, and the overwhelming subjective and dictatorial attitude which may sway judgments of classroom work, render this

ON MEASUREMENT

crude valuation and appraising of little worth. Especially is tliis the case when standards (if any at all are present) are not known to the teacher who is being judged.

The teacher does not object to criticism. The teacher does not frown upon definite, objective standards. The teacher does not fear measurement according to such known standards. But what she does dread is the mysterious inspection, which flows no one knows from what source, which leads anywhere but to sweetness and light, and which leaves her shaken, often to the extent of hysteria. A pillar of flame by night would inspire her with less alarm.

Measurement of school work by results has fallen on evil days because due regard has not always been given to the apparently unmeasurable processes and methods used in attaining these results. Properly relegated to its place in a more complete scheme of valuation, in which the process is also judged, measurement by results is helpful and can not be ignored. The result and the process both are lit subjects for measurement.

The chief difficulty in any scheme of valuation lies in measuring, by known, objective standards, the different phases of the teaching process. Properly to evaluate the teacher's presentation of her work, it is necessary to analyse carefully her preparation, the appeals which she uses, and the incentives which she calls into play. Each aspect, moreover, can be given a value, according as it fills a position in a series of excellencies. For example, preparation will yield a series somewhat as follows :

(1) No preparation

(2) Plan hook and nothing else

(3) Plan hook + material at hand

(4) Plan hook + material + proper se-

quence and organization

(5) Plan hoolv + material -\- sequence and

organization + proynptness

ON MEASUREMENT

Judgment of the teacher's preparation of her work can not now be an offhand, **Very poor, " ^ ^ Good, ' ' or ^ ^ Excellent. ' ' It must be a simple statement of facts, or rather a checking up under known categories and in a definite series, with placement in one of the five positions. If each position is given a value, a rating can be given according to the following scheme :

Arranged more conveniently for purposes of supervision, the following order results :

Preparation of work 100

Plan 25

Sequence and organization 25 Promptness 25

Each of these four merits may be further analvzed and each detail allowed a value.

Measurement of school work on its qualitative side is made possible by arranging a series of excellencies, (standardization), and by checking up the work and giving it a place and a value according to its position in the series. Measurement of school work on its quantitative side is the valuation commonly known as ^measurement by results,' that is, it is the correction of work on a percentage basis. It is all very simple, and affords nothing new as far as the aspects themselves are concerned. It is merely the serial arrangement, organization, and valuation, which may seem new.

Presentation of the lesson, results of instruction, results of discipline, personality of the teacher, all these can be treated objectively in the manner suggested. The value of such serial treatment is almost self-evident. It ties down the one who inspects to a definite procedure, and shuts out as far as possible any subjective, irresponsible judgment. A series of excellencies known to the teacher guides her in right practice. A series of objective standards allows of cooperation,

ON MEASUREMENT

mutual understanding, and appeal to others, where undue severity of judgment is exercised on the basis of the facts checked up. No one can well appeal a flat fiat of an official superior. But justice may become more of a reality when not only the judgment is given, but also the data on which it is based.

II On Methods Of Teaching In General

In the teaching process, two individuals, the teacher and the pupil, are engaged upon a third object, the material in instruction and discipline. We have a triangle, as it were, but a triangle of which the three sides are not equal. The child is still in leading strings, and the material is subject to selection, simplification, and arrangement. Further considerations will involve the number of pupils to be taught in a single class, and the number of grades to be organized in a single school.

On the one hand, the child conditions the method which is to be used in presenting the material to him. He will be able to progress, only as he is able to see, hear, talk, manipulate, remember, think, feel, and in general, react and express himself to the fullest ex-

ON METHODS

tent of his powers. Moreover, he will be found to react better under some conditions than he will under others. He is more responsive when his feelings have been touched, his desires aroused, his ambition stirred, or his experience called into play. Physical and hj^gienic conditions may further support instruction in this connection. On the other hand, the material and the subject matter form an integral part of the method of presentation. Organization, arrangement, gradation, etc., are a prerequisite to success.

On the side of presentation in instruction and discipline, we have therefore the following aspects of the teaching process :

Preparation of work Use of incentives Visual appeal Oral appeal Manual appeal

It is to be noted that these categories are objective and refer to what the teacher does,

Other categories which are in use often confuse mental processes within the mind of the pupil, with device and method emploj^ed by the teacher. Induction and deduction, for example, refer in part to thought processes of the children, and as such are rather principles which underlie and condition method, than method itself. Other expressions, as, the recitation lesson, the study period, appreciation, problem work, etc., are either included in the above headings, as, oral appeal, or are to be considered a result of instruction, under one or more of the headings given below, as, expression.

Motor expression, dramatization, and the like may be considered a result of instruction, rather than a part of the presentation, as such. If a motor presentation is given for the benefit of the class, it becomes a visual appeal, and subject to consideration under that heading. In fact, visual and oral appeals are necessary before much motor expression can take place.

ON METHODS

Whether a subject is developed, reviewed, or drilled, it makes its impress through much the same avenues, visual, oral, or manual. In drill, the essence is repetition, and in review it is organization. Drill emphasizes f ocalization upon a few topics, appeal to all the members of the class, and stimulation of the pupils as many times as possible through as many appeals as possible. Review emphasizes logical system and order in the arrangement of material, and employs condensation, topical outline, and logical or other sequence.

After the teacher has presented the subject properly to the pupils, one naturally looks for definite results. It has long been the custom to hold oral and written expression synonymous with much of the language work. And there were always added conditioning directions to the effect that English should also be considered in recitations in other subjects, as, arithmetic, geography, etc. It seems better, however, to make 'expression' the larger term and * language'

only one of its different forms. For instance, we may have valuable expression in the different manual exercises, dramatizations, and the like. Expression, as such, can be considered one of the chief results of instruction, without restriction by any such limitations as inhere in language. Of the different forms of expression, we have :

Oral expression

Appreciation and study of text-book Manual expression Motor expression Written expression Form Content Further results in instruction call for the content of the different subjects of the grade. These are the usual school subjects, namely :

History and civics

Geography

Study of nature

Language and music

Manual work, penmanship, etc.

ON METHODS

Divisions and subdivisions can be given according to the extent to which details are required. It is to be noted that manual work, and the like, have a content value apart from their merits as expression.

Results in discipline, so called, are similarly to be expected as a consequence of effective development, training, and practice. These results include :

Personnel of the children

Material in the classroom

If social morality is a school subject and is treated specifically like other school subjects, as, arithmetic or geography, topics can be arranged and organized for purposes of checking up.

In so far as the teacher is before the pupils during school sessions and should set an example of correct behavior in many details, her personality, considered in its relation to the pupils, becomes of considerable moment. Further relationships branch out and include reaction towards the parents of the children, towards colleagues within the school, superior officials, etc. Such relations materially react on classroom instruction and discipline. The close interest now manifested in the welfare, progress, and numbers of the children under the ever expanding wing of the school, necessitates an accurate keeping of many records. Here, too, the personality of the teacher makes for efficiency or inefficiency, as the case may be. Enumerating the different directions in which the teacher's personality should be an influence, we have the following :

Towards the pupils Towards visitors Towards the school School activities Records and reports

ON IVIETHODS

Such aspects as self -improvement, studies, etc., may be counted in under the head of personality towards the school.

A category which is now more popular than ^personality' in present-day use, is ^cooperation/ Cooperation is the same thing as personality in its dynamic aspects, and places greater emphasis upon the different relationships, as, Cooperation with pupils, Cooperation with visitors. Cooperation with colleagues, and so on. But in essence, personality dynamically considered, and cooperation are much the same.

The very fewest number of excellencies which should be rated in testing the efficiency of the teacher, are four, namely :

Presentation in instruction and discipline Results of instruction Results of discipline Personality and cooperation

A more complete scheme will include the following :

Presentation Preparation Use of incentives Visual appeal Oral appeal Manual appeal

Personality (cooperation) Towards the pupils Towards visitors Towards the school School activities Records and reports

Personnel of the pupils

Results of instruction Expression Oral

Appreciation and study Manual Motor Written

ON JVIETHODS

Content of subjects Arithmetic History and civics Geography and nature Language and music Manual tvork, penmanship, etc, (Social morality)

Still further details can be worked out as the folloYNTLng pages will show.

Ill

ON APPLICATION AND TECHNIQUE IN GENERAL

To ensure cooperation between principal and teacher, and to facilitate progress and improvement in the efficiency of teaching, it is necessary for the principal to employ a standard which applies to all, and for the teacher to know exactly what that standard is. Whatever blanks, etc., are used in rating and checking up classroom work should therefore be placed in the hands of all the teachers concerned. It is advisable, moreover, for the teacher to check up her own work from time to time, and to make arrangements by which two teachers can visit and give each other ratings according to the blanks in use.

For the principal, printed blanks may be considered one of the essentials in school control. The head of the school usually begins with considerable enthusiasm to give model lessons, to write directions for the benefit of new teachers, to outline plans, and to correct error. These, however, soon assume a monotonous uniformity. The same suggestions are needed again and again. New teachers floimder about in much the same helpless fashion. Weakness and error follow about the same general lines. Often the principal will give up the never-ceasing, Sisyphus-like occupation of improving the work of teachers. He may allow matters Ho settle themselves,' may lean back, and find everything Very fine.' Sometimes he will promulgate a long list of rules, from number one, on, with subdivisions and details, which are handed, en hloc, to the teacher. Again, he may fear to bind himself in writing, and deliver oral suggestions, which soon become distorted in the reminiscent consciousness of the teacher. What is needed, is not a descriptive catalogue of merits and demerits, given in extenso, but rather a system of properly organized categories wMcIi are based on sound principles and which have been tested in practice. Printed blanks carry with them their own corrections, the headings automatically pointing out to the teacher which excellencies she has violated, or which merits she has attained in her work. If the loose leaf form of blank is used, a carbon copy can be made, and this should be given to the teacher. Unless this is done, the inspection is of little use in improving the teacher's efficiency.

When an inspection is made by the principal, he quietly enters the room, and with the teacher's permission, begins to check up, evaluate, and record merits and demerits. The blank which deals with the excellencies of the teaching process requires from 5 to 15 minutes to check and fill out, depending upon the number of details recorded. In this blank, all the merits may not apply, and so need not be touched upon. For example, a lesson may call for only oral work. In this case only the headings under Oral Appeal will be used, with perhaps some of the headings under Preparation, or Incentives, In the beginning, numerical values need not be given. Such marks as cross, (x), question mark, (?), dash, ( — ), or check, (^), may be employed according as there is a deficiency needing correction, a merit which is in doubt, an excellence which is not required by the lesson, and so does not figure in the report, or a value which is present and fully credited. Later, numerical ratings can be given. The same general method of procedure holds with the blank which considers the Results of Discipline, N"o more than 5 or 10 minutes are needed to check up a class. Entries under some of the details of Routine, Response, and Class Activities do not require checking up in the room at all, and can be calculated in the office. The blank on Personality can be filled out in the office, and so can some of the items on the blanks which deal with Results of Instruction,

In the use of the blanks, two questions which arise, are : How often should inspections be made? and, How many blanks of each kind should the teacher receive? On the assiunption that there exists a fairly imiform grade of efficiency throughout the school, there will be needed for each teacher one blank a term on Personality, from one to three blanks on The Teaching Process, from one to three on Results in Discipline, one to three on Results in Expression, and one for each test given for Results in Content. Tests in content may be given to the whole school once each month or two, according to the time spent on the subject, as, arithmetic once a month, geography or history every other month, etc. The class teacher should check herself up mentally, and reflect upon her work, substituting month for term, and weeh for month, in the time values given in the preceding suggestions.

Variation from this general method is necessary when deficiencies exist and are found. A weakness which has been recorded should be followed up. In such a case two or three blanks on the same topic, and indicating the same weakness or deficiency should be sufficient to secure correction before a final inspection is made and the term rating given. For example, the same subject may be inspected for from three to five days in succession; two or three notes on personality may be required ; results in discipline may require from three to a dozen or more visits before the term is half way over ; or some special item, as. Incentives, Voice and Manner, Oral Appeal, etc., may need correction several times. Such corrections are emphasized when they are repeated in exactly the same words, and with exactly the same ratings, where no improvement is evident. Two or three such suggestions are enough to effect a cure, without any comment or oral expostulation of the least kind by the principal.

What is to be done if that rara avis, the teacher who combines inefficiency with contumacy and aggressiveness, is found in the school ? The blank on Personality is inclusive enough to record deficiencies under the headings of Helpfulness, Patience, Courtesy, Ability to listen, etc. Further demerits will probably crop up in the written work, in the preparation of work, and in the use of incentives. These should be recorded. The same method of inspection which is used in the case of the other teachers, should apply to the particular teacher imder observation. At least several ratings should be given, with positive suggestions as to means of correction. There will be no argument nor ^fuss' of any kind with a teacher, if the principal simply listens, without answering. In such a case, it is a question of evidence, and not a matter of personal argument. The teacher who takes a kind of pride in ^asserting herself,' in giving an argument, in letting people know, etc., will then find herself, as far as any results are concerned, beating in the void her fluttering wings in vain. Once an individual receives definite instructions in writing, ignorance can not be an excuse, violation implies lack of good will, and all responsibility rests Vv^th the one who intentionally fails to carr}^ out suggestions. The duty of the principal ends when he has delivered his directions, given aid, and checked up the results.

In calculating results, the basis taken will depend upon the nature of the work inspected. If only four or five pupils are examined, (five best, five middle, or five worst), a fifth will be deducted for each one who misses. If the whole number of pupils present forms the basis, as in inspection of the Personnel of the children, an exact rating can be rapidly worked out by means of the tables on pages 33-35. For example, 20 counts out of 100 are allowed for condition of shoes. If there are 31 pupils present, and 8 have unshined shoes, each one will count 0.6452, according to Table 10-34, page 33. The 8 will count 5.16 out of the total of 20, which will leave 14.84 as the rating of the class on condition of shoes. A similar use of the tables can be made in correction of sets of composition, and the like, where the register or the attendance is taken as the basis in calculation. For example, if 9 out of 34 papers are marred by blots or blurs, by reference to the value of 1 out of 34 as given in the table, (page 33), 9X0.5882, will have to be deducted from the total of 20 counts allowed for the merit in question, which gives 20 — 5.29=14.71.

Occasionally it is necessary to arrange the classes in a series, and form four, five, or ten groups. If a total of 20 is allowed for an excellence, 5, 4, or 2 becomes the unit of increase from the lowest group to the highest. For example, if there are 35 classes in the school, these can be grouped in 4 divisions of merit, the highest being given 20, the second highest, 15, the third, 10, and the last, 5. In the first division there will be 9 classes, in the second, 9, in the third, 9, and in the last, 8. Such a method of valuation applies to room decoration, to absence of pupils, etc. The series in attendance of pupils can be arranged according to the per cent of attendance obtained for a given period, week, month, or term.

In checking up work on a percentage basis, as, in arithmetic, or spelling, the average, median, or mode may be used. The average is the common measure employed by teachers. The totals of each paper are added up and divided by the number of cases. Thus 9, 9, 8, 8, 8, 7, 7, 6, 5, 4, 4, 3, added up give a total of 78, divided by the number in the series, 12, give an average of 6.5. If we count down to the middle case, the sixth, the median value, 7, will result. The median is not affected by extremes, that is, by 100 's or O's, but it is not a good measure imless there is considerable variation in the results. When the results show a massing about a few values, the mode is a good measure. Thus in the series, 10, 10, 9, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 6, 5, 5, the mode, 7 — 8, would be a good valuation to take. Where a single merit is to be tested, as, general appearance of papers in drawing or construction work, the papers may be arranged in a series, and the middle one selected as representative of the whole set. For more accurate testing, however, it is better to mark the papers on a numerical basis, giving values to the different merits which inhere in the work.

VALUE OF 1 OUT OF 10 — 34, WHEN THE TOTAL IS 100, 25 OR 20

No.

10.0000

2.5000

2.0000

9.0909

2.2727

1.8182

8.3333

2.0833

1.6667

7.6923

1.9231

1.5385

7.1429

1.7857

1.4286

6.6667

1.6667

1.3333

6.2500

1.5625

1.2500

5.8823

1.4706

1.1765

5.5556

1.3889

1.1111

5.2632

1.3158

1.0526

5.0000

1.2500

1.0000

4.7619

1.1905

0.9524

4.5454

1.1364

0.9091

4.3478

1.0869

0.8696

4.1667

1.0417

0.8333

4.0000

1.0000

3.8461

0.9615

0.7692

3.7037

0.9259

0.7407

3.5714

0.8928

0.7143

3.4483

0.8621

0.6897 z.iUi

0.8333

0.6667

3.2258

0.8064

0.6452

3.1250

0.7812

0.6250

3.0303

0.7576

0.6061

2.9412

0.7353

0.5882

VALUE OF I OUT OF 35 — 59, WHEN THE TOTAL IS 100, 25 OR 20

No.

2.8571

0.7143

0.5714

2.7778

0.6944

0.5555

2.7027

0.6757

0.5405

2.6316

0.6579

0.5263

2.5641

0.6410

0.5128

2.5000

0.6125

0.5000

2.4390

0.6097

0.4878

2.3809

0.5952

0.4762

2.3256

0.5814

0.4651

2.2727

0.5682

0.4545

2.2222

0.5555

0.4444

2.1739

0.5435

0.4348

2.1277

0.5319

0.4255

2.0833

0.5208

0.4167

2.0408

0.5102

0.4082

2.0000

0.5000

0.4000

1.9608

0.4902

0.3922

1.9231

0.4808

0.3846

1.8868

0.4717

0.3774

1.8518

0.4629

0.3704

1.8182

0.4545

0.3636

1.7857

0.4464

0.3571

1.7544

0.4386

0.3509

1.7241

0.4310

0.3448

1.6949

0.4237

0.3390

VALUE OF I OUT OF 60—84, WHEN THE TOTAL IS 100, 25 OR 20

No.

1.6667

0.4167

U33i

1.6393

0.4098

0.3279

1.6129

0.4032

0.3226

1.5873

0.3968

0.3175

1.5625

0.3906

0.3125

1.5385

0.3846

0.3077

1.5151

0.3788

0.3030

1.4925

0.3731

0.2985

1.4706

0.3676

0.2941

1.4493

0.3623

0.2898

1.4286

0.3571

0.2857

1.4084

0.3521

0.2817

1.3889

0.3472

0.2778

1.3699

0.3425

0.2740

1.3513

0.3378

0.2703

1.3333

0.3333

0.2667

1.3158

0.3289

0.2631

1.2987

0.3247

0.2597

1.2820

0.3205

0.2564

1.2658

0.3164

0.2532

1.2500

0.3125

0.2500

1.2346

0.3086

0.2469

1.2195

0.3049

0.2439

1.2048

0.3012

0.2410

1.1905

0.2976

0.2381

II

THE TEACHING PROCESS INSTRUCTION— DISCIPLINE