A student's history of education

Front matter

f

BOOKS ON THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION

By Dean Frank P. Graves

Preface

There is a growing con\dction among those engaged in training teachers that the History of Education must justify itself. It is beheved that, if this subject is to contribute to the professional equipment of the teacher, its material must be selected with reference to his specific needs. Antiquarian interests and encyclopaedic completeness are alluring and may in their place prove praiseworthy and valuable, but they do not in themselves supply any definite demand in the training of teachers. The greatest services that the History of Education can perform for the teacher are to impel him to analyze his problems more completely and to throw hght upon the school practices with which he is himself concerned. By presenting a series of clear-cut views of past conditions, often in marked contrast to his own, it should make him conscious that the present educational situation has to a large degree been traditionally received, and it should at the same time especially help him to understand the origin and significance of current practices.

In this way a study of the History of Education will disrupt the teacher's complacent acceptance of the present, and will enable him to reconstruct his ideas in the Hght of the pecuhar conditions out of which the education of his times has sprung. Whenever historical records do not assist in such an analysis and synthesis of present day problems, they may be frankly dismissed from discussion. This conception of the subject, I have myself,

vii vm PREFACE

with much reluctance, come to accept. My own regard for the classics, philosophy, and general history as college disciplines has caused me to view with apprehension any disposition to curtail their scope. It now seems clear, however, that the modern tendency to emphasize the functional aspects of the History of Education is both necessary and wise. The present work, therefore, is not a mere condensation of my History oj Education in Three Volumes, but has been very largely re- written from the new angle.

In the first place, I have sought to stress educational institutions and practices, rather than theories that did not find embodiment in the times. This has led to the omission of much that is unessential or more strictly related to philosophy, general history, or literature. For example, even the immortal work of Plato and Aristotle has been epitomized; the entire subject of mysticism and most of scholasticism have been dropped; the masterpieces of such pure theorists as Rabelais, Montaigne, and Mulcaster, are barely mentioned; and the various historical epochs are given only so much detail as may be needed to form a social setting for the educational movements of those periods.

Secondly, it has seemed to me that our present problems in education can best be analyzed through a knowledge of the practices that have developed in modern times. Hence, while this book includes an account of all educational endeavor from the day of primitive man to the present, somewhat more than one-half the material is connected with the last two centuries. Even the attractive period of Hellenic activity and the fascinating stories of monasticism and of chivalry have been

PREFACE IX

reduced to a minimum. But, though most of the changes in the earlier half of the work are in the nature of shortening, or have to do with more immediate connections, some topics, notably the development of commerce and cities (Chapter XI) and the analysis of formal discipline (Chapter XVI), have seemed to be so closely connected with subsequent progress as to deserve more adequate treatment.

Finally, since this book is intended chiefly for teachers in the United States, I have believed it most helpful to give considerable space to the discussion of American education. The account of each educational movement has included at least an attempt to trace its influence upon the content, method, and organization of education in the United States, while three chapters have been devoted exclusively to the rise of educational systems in this country.

My indebtedness for many valuable features in this book is heavy. The idea of an Outline, which appears at the beginning of each chapter, was first suggested to me by the History of Modern Elementary Education of Dean S. C. Parker of the College of Education, University of Chicago, although I have adopted a different explanation of its value. Professor Parker also read through the manuscript and sent me a general estimate of it. Professors J. H. Coursault of the University of Missouri, A. J. Jones of the University of Maine, W. H. Kilpatrick of Columbia University, A. R. Mead of Ohio Wesleyan University, and A. L. Suhrie of the West Chester (Pennsylvania) State Normal School, have all read the manuscript through with exceeding care and furnished me with numerous corrections and criticisms, both particular and

X PREFACE

general. Professor T. H. Briggs of Columbia University suggested a number of improvements in the chapter upon Present Day Tendencies in Education (XXVII.) The chapter upon the Educational Influences of the Reformation (XIX) has been reUeved of several inaccuracies, and possibly of some Protestant bias, through the assistance of the Rev. Benedict Guldner, S. J., of St. Joseph's College, and of Brother Denis Edward, F. S. C, President of La Salle College, Philadelphia. I have also, as usual, been greatly aided by my wife, Helen Wadsworth Graves.

F. P. G.

Chapter II

The Education of the Greeks ..... n Progressive Nature of Greek Education. Spartan Education: Its Aim and Early Stages. Training in Youth and Manhood: Results. Old Athenian Education: Its Aim and Early Training. Training for the Youth. Effect of the Old Athenian Education. Causes and Character of the New Athenian Education. The Sophists and Their Training. Their Extreme Individ- y ualism. The Reactionaries and the Mediators. The ,- Method of Socrates. Plato's System of Education for the Three Classes of Society. The Weakness of Plato's System. His Influence upon Educational Theory and Practice. Aristotle's Ideal State and Education. The u'^'' Permanent Value of His Work. The Post-Aristotelian Schools of Philosophy. The Schools of Rhetoric. The Hellenic Universities. Extension of Hellenic Culture.

XI

XU CONTENTS

Chapter III Page

Roman Education Amalgamated with Greek. Early Education in Rome. The Absorption of Greek Culture. The Ludus. Grammar Schools. Rhetorical Schools. Universities. Subsidization of Education. Decay of Education. Influence of Roman Education.

Chapter IV

The Education of the Early Christians ... 42 The Ideals of Early Christianity. Early Christian Life as an Education. Catechumenal Schools. Amalgamation of Christianity with Graeco-Roman Philosophy. Catechetical and Episcopal or Cathedral Schools. Influence of Grajco-Roman Culture upon Christianity. Rise of the Monastic Schools.

CHAPTER V The Monastic Education 53

The Middle Ages as a Period of Assimilation and Repression. The Evolution and Nature of Monasticism. Benedict's 'Rule' and the Multiplication of Manuscripts. Amalgamation of Roman and Irish Christianity. The Organization of the Monastic Schools. The 'Seven Liberal Arts' as the Curriculum. The Methods and Texts. Effect upon Civilization of the Monastic Schools.

CHAPTER VI Charlemagne's Revival of Education . . .60

Condition of Education in the Eighth Century.

CONTENTS Xm

PAGE

Higher Education at the Palace School. Educational Improvement in the Monastic, Cathedral, and Parish Schools. Alcuin's Educational Work at Tours. Rabanus Maurus, Erigena, and Others Concerned in the Revival.

CHAPTER VII ?.TosLEM Learisting and Education .... 65

The Hellenization of Moslemism. Hellenized Moslemism in Spain. Effect upon Europe of the Moslem Education.

Chapter VIII

Educational Tendencies of Scholasticism ... 69 The Nature of Scholasticism. The History of Scholastic Development. Scholastic Education. Its Value and Influence.

Chapter IX

The Rise of Universities. The Foundation of Universities at Salerno, Bologna, and Paris. Bologna and Paris as the Models for Other Universities. Privileges Granted to the Universities. Organization of the Universities. Course in the Four Faculties. The Methods of Instruction. Examinations and Degrees. The Value and Influence of the University Training.

CHAPTER X The Education of Chivalry

The Development of Feudalism. The Ideals of Chivalry. The Three Preparatory Stages of Education. The Eff^ects of Chivalric Education.

Chapter XI

The Burgher, Gild, and Chantry Schools ... 88 The Rise of Commerce and Industry. Development

XIV CONTENTS

PAGE

of Cities and the Burgher Class. The Gilds and Industrial Education. Gild Schools. Burgher Schools. Chan- J try Schools. Influence of the New Schools. ,

PART HI THE TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES

CHAPTER XII The Humanistic Education ...... 99

The Passing of the Middle Ages. The Renaissance and the Revival of Learning. Causes of the Awakening \/ in Italy. The Revival of the Latin Classics. The Development of Greek Scholarship. The Court Schools and Vittorino da Feltre. The Court School at Mantua. The Relation of the Court Schools to the Universities. Decadence of Itahan Humanism. The Spread and Character of Humanism in the Northern Countries. The Development of Humanism in France. French Humanistic Educators and Institutions. Humanism in the German Universities. The Hieronymians and Their Schools. Erasmus, Leader in the Humanistic Education of the North. The Development of Gymnasiums: Melanchthon's Work. Sturm at Strassburg. Formalism in the Gymnasiums. The Humanistic Movement in England: Greek at Oxford and Cambridge. Humanism at the Court. Colet and His School at St. Paul's. Humanism in the English Grammar Schools. English Grammar and Public Schools To-day. The Grammar Schools in the American Colonies. The Aim and Institutions of Humanistic Education, t

Chapter XIII

Educational Influences OF THE Reformation . . 124 The Relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance. The Revolt and Educational Works of Luther. Luther's

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

Ideas on Education. The Embodiment of Luther's Ideas in Schools by His Associates. The Revolt and Educational Ideas of Zwingli. Calvin's Revolt and His ^

Encouragement of Education. The Colleges of Calvin. Henry VIII's Revolt and Its Efifect upon Education. Foundation of the Society of Jesus. Organization of the Jesuits. The Jesuit Colleges. The Jesuit Methods of Teaching. Value and Influence of the Jesuit Education. The Organization of the Education of the Port Royalists. The Port Royal Course and Method of Teaching. La Salle and, the Schools of the Christian Brothers. The Aim, Curriculum, and Method of the Christian Brothers' Schools. Influence of the Schools of the Christian Brothers. Aim and Content of Education in the Reformation. Effect of the Reformation upon Elementary Education. Effect of the Reformation upon the Secondary Schools. I^nfluence of the Reformation upon the Universities. T'he Lapse into Formalism.

Chapter XIV

The Rise and Nature of Realism. Humanistic Realism. Social Realism. The Relations of Humanistic to Social Realism. The Influence of the Innovators upon Education. The Ritterakademien. The Academies in England. The Academies in America.

Chapter XV

Sense Realism and the Early Scientific Movement . 162 The Development of the Sciences and Realism. Bacon and His Inductive Method. Bacon's Educational Suggestions and Influence. Ratich's Methods. Comenius: His Training and Work. His Series of Latin Texts. The Great Didactic. His Encyclopaedic Arrangement of Knowledge. The Method of Nature. The

XVI CONTENTS

' PAGE

' Influence of Comenius upon Education. Realistic Tendencies in Elementary Schools. Secondary Schools. The Universities.

CHAPTER XVI Formal Discipline in Education . . . .179

Locke's Work and Its Various Classifications. Locke's Disciplinary Theory in Intellectual Education. Disciplinary Attitude in Moral and Physical Training. Origin, Significance, and Influence of the Theory of Formal Discipline. Opposition to the Disciplinary Theory and More Recent Modification. Locke's Real Position on Formal Discipline.

CHAPTER XVII V v/' American Education a Development from European

Conditions in Europe from Which American Education Sprang. Colonial School Organization: The Aristocratic Type in Virginia. The Parochial Schools in New Netherlands. Sectarian Organization of Schools in Pennsylvania. Town Schools in Massachusetts. Education in the Other Colonies.

CHAPTER XVIII Growth of the Democratic Ideal in Education 203

The Revolt from Absolutism. The Two Epochs in I the Eighteenth Century. Voltaire and the Encyclo-

pedists. Rousseau and His Times. Rousseau's Works.

CONTFNrS XVll

Chapter XIX Page

1 RALisM IN Education . . . . . .210

The Influence of Rousseau's Naturalism. Naturalistic Basis of the Entile. The Five Books of the Emile. Estimate of the Entile. The Sociological Movements in Modem Education. TheScientific Movement inModem Education. The Psychological Movements in Modern Education. The Spread of Rousseau's Doctrines. Development of Basedow's Educational Reforms. Textbooks and Other Works. Course and Methods of the Philanthropinum. Influence of the Philanthropinum.

Chapter XX

Reconstructive Tendencies of the Eighteenth Century. The Rise of Charity Schools in England. The Schools of the S. P. C. K. Other Charity Schools. The Charity Schools of the S. P. G. Charity Schools among the Pennsylvania Germans. The 'Sunday School' Movement in Great Britain. The 'Sunday School'^ Movement in the United States. Value of the Instruction in ' Sunday Schools.' The Schools of the Two Monitorial Societies. Value of the Monitorial System in England. Results of the Monitorial System in the United States. The 'Infant Schools' in France. The 'Infant Schools' in England. 'Infant Schools' in the United states. The Importance of PhUanthropic Education.

Chapter XXI

Ti' Period of Transition in American Education . 251 Evolution of Public Education in the United States, ^ise of the Common School in Virginia. Similar Devel- >pments in the Other Southern States. Evolution of ^ublic Education in New York. New York City. De- "■elopment of Systems of Education in Pennsylvania and

J

XVUl Ct'NTENTS

PACK

the Other Middle States. Decline of Education in Massachusetts. Developments in the Other New England States. The Extension of Educational Organization to the Northwest. Condition of the Common Schools Prior to the Awakening.

CHAPTER XXII Observation and Industrial Training in Education 276

V Pestalozzi as the Successor of Rousseau. Pestalozzi's

Philanthropic and Industrial Ideals. His Industrial School at Neuhof and the Leonard and Gertrude. His School at Stanz and Beginning of His Observational Methods. Continuation of His Methods at Burgdorf, and Eow Gertrude Teaches Her Children. The 'Institute* at Yverdon and the Culmination of the Pestalozzian Methods. Pestalozzi's Educational Aim and Organization. His General Method. The Permanent Influence of Pestalozzi. The Spread of Pestalozzian Schools and Methods through Europe. Pestalozzianism in the United States. Pestalozzi's Industrial Training Continued by Fellenberg. The Agricultural School and Other Institutions at Hofwyl. Industrial Training in the Schools of Europe. Industrial Institutions in the United States.

CHAPTER XXni

Development of Public Education in the United States 302 The Third Period in American Education. Early Leaders in the Common School Revival. Work of James L G. Carter. Horace Mann as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board. The Educational Suggestions and Achievements of Mann. Henry Barnard's Part in the Educational Awakening. Barnard as Secretary of the Connecticut State Board. Commissioner of Common Schools in Rhode Island. State Superintendent of Schools in Connecticut. Barnard's American Journal

CONTENTS XIX

PAGX of Education. First United States Commissioner of Education. Value of Barnard's Educational Collections. Educational Development in New England since the Revival. Influence of the Awakening upon the Middle States. Public Education in the West. Organization of State Systems in the South. Development of the American System of Education.

Chapter XXIV

Development of Educational Practice . . . 333 Froebel and Herbart as Disciples of Pestalozzi. The ^ Early Career and Writings of Herbart. Work at Konigsberg and Gottingen. Herbart's Psychology. The Aim, Content, and Method. The Value and Influence of Herbart's Principles. The Extension of His Doctrines in Germany. Herbartianism in the United States. Froebel's Early Life. His Experiences at Frankfort, Yverdon, and Berlin. The School at Keilhau. Development of the Kindergarten. Froebel's Fundamental Concept of 'Unity.' Motor Expression as His Method. The Social Aspect of Education. The Kindergarten. The Value and Influence of Froebel's Principles. The Spread of Froebelianism through Europe. The Kinder- / garten in the United States. The Relative Influence of \/ Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel.

Chapter XXV

National Systems of Education in Europe and Canada. The Beginning of State Control in Prussia. Educational Achievements of Frederick the Great. Educational Influence of Zedlitz. Foundation of the Ministry of Education and Further Progress. The Elementary System. The Secondary System. Higher Education. Educational Development in France. The Primary School

XX CONTENTS

PAGE

System. The Secondary System. The Institutions of Higher Education. Centralized Administration of the French Education. Early Development of English Education. Educational Movements in the Nineteenth Century. Subsequent Educational Movements. Development of Education in the Dominion of Canada. The Public School System of Ontario. The System of Ecclesiastical Schools in Quebec.

Chapter XXVI

The Scientific Movement and the Curriculum . . 397 The Development of the Natural Sciences in Modern Times. The Growth of Inventions and Discoveries in the Nineteenth Century. Herbert Spencer and Wkat

* Knowledge is of Most Worth. Advocacy of the Sciences by Huxley and Others. The Disciplinary Argument for the Sciences. Introduction of the Sciences into Educational Institutions in Germany, France, England, and the United States. Interrelation of the Scientific with the Psychological and Sociological Movements.

Chapter XXVII

Recent Educational Progress. The Growth of Industrial Training. Industrial Schools in Europe. Industrial Training in the United States. Commercial Education in Europe and America. Recent Emphasis upon Agricultural Training. Moral Training in the Schools To-day. The Development of Training for Mental Defectives. Education of the Deaf and Blind. Recent Development of Educational Method; Dewey's Experimental School. Other Experiments in Method. The Montessori Method. The Statistical Method and Mental Measurements in Education. Education and the Theory of Evolution. Enlarging Conceptions of the Function of Education.

CONTENTS XXI

Chapter XXVIII Page

Retrospect and Prospect 441

The Development of Individualism. The Harmonization of the Individual and Society Index . . 447

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate Fig. Opposite Page

1. I. Elders explaining to young men of an Australian

tribe at the ' initiatory ceremonies ' 8

2. A Hindu school in the open air, with the village schoolmaster teaching boys to write on a strip of palm leaf with an iron stylus 8

2. 3. The palcBStra in education at Athens 14

4. The didascaleum in education at Athens 14

3. 5. Roman school materials 36

6. Scene at a ludus or Roman elementary school . . 36

4. 7. A monk in the scriptorium 56

8. A monastic school 56

5. 9. The temple of wisdom ; an allegorical representa-

tion of the mediaeval course of study 72

6. 10. The lecture in mediaeval universities 80

II. The disputation in mediaeval universities 80

7. 12 and 13. Preliminaries and termination of a com-

bat in the education of chivalry 86

14. Boys playing tournament with a 'quintain' or

dummy man 86

8. 15. Apprenticeship training in a gild 92

16. GUd school at Stratford, where Shakespeare

learned 'little Latin and less Greek' 92

9. 17. Great English Public Schools: Winchester and

Eton 120

10. 18. Education of the Jesuits: Jesuit College at Regensburg and diagram of a Jesuit schoolroom 136

xxiii

XXIV ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate Fig. Opposite Page

11. 19. School of the Christian Brothers at Rouen. . . . 146

20. A Protestant school in a German village of the

sixteenth century 146

12. 21. A page from the Or 6 w Pic/«5 of Comenius, illus-

trating a lesson on a trade 170

13. 22. Town school at Dedham (Massachusetts) with

watch-tower, built in 1648 198

23. Boston Latin School, founded in 1635 198

24. The buildings of Harvard College, erected in

14. 25. The chUd as a miniature adult 228

26. A naturalistic school 228

15. 27. A monitorial schoolroom 242

28. Pupils reciting to monitors 242

29. Monitor inspecting slates 242

16. 30. A 'kitchen school' 268

31. A colonial ' summer school ' 268

32. The first 'academy,' founded by Benjamin

Franklin at Philadelphia in 1750 268

17. 33. 'Father' Pestalozzi at Stanz 282

34. The 'table of units' of Pestalozzi 282

18. 35. Court of FeUenberg's Agricultural Institute . . . 298 36. General view of FeUenberg's schools and workshops 298

19. 37- James G. Carter 312

38. Horace Mann 312

39. Henry Barnard 312

40. Francis W. Parker 312

20. 41. The first high school, established at Boston in

1821 332

42. The University of Michigan in 1855 332

21. 43. 'The Carpenter' from Froebel's Mo/Aer P/ay.. . 360

ILLUSTRATIONS XXV

Plate Fig. Opposite Page

22. 44. Jean Jacques Rousseau 368

45. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 368

46. Johann Friedrich Herbart 368

47. Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel 368

In text. 48. Diagram of German education 380

In text. 49. Diagram of French education 392

In text. 50. Diagram of English education 392

23. 51. Charles Darwin 404

52. Herbert Spencer 404

53. Thomas H. Huxley 404

54. Charles W. Eliot 404

In text. 55. Diagram of vocational education of boys in

Germany 424

24. 56. Indian house constructed in Dewey's experi-

mental school 436

57. Part of the Thomdike Writing Scale 436

Foreword

Each chapter in this book will be prefaced by an Outline, or generalized statement of the ideas to be included in it. Logically such an epitome is needed at the beginning as well as at the end of the chapter. At the beginning, it serves as a hypothetical or tentative generaHzation of the facts; at the end, as a conclusion whose truth has been tested in the light of these facts and accepted with conviction.

By having this outline in mind when he studies the facts, the student is enabled not only to see that the general statements are verified and made more significant by the details, but at the same time to organize the facts with reference to the generalization, and thereby secure an easier control of them, and, through the relation of each to the others, discover a fuller meaning in them all. Then, after this study of the details has established the truth of the outline and enriched its meaning, he can review the outline and fix it in mind as the conclusion of the chapter.

Chapter I

Even a brief survey of the history of education may greatly broaden one's view.

Starting with primitive man, we find that his training aims only at the necessities of Ufe, and is acquired informally through the elders and the medicine-men.

In Oriental education, the next stage in progress, illustrated by India, a traditional knowledge is acquired through memoriter and imitative methods.

While Oriental, Jewish education afforded greater development of individuaUty, but it was late in organizing schools, memoriter in methods, and restricted in content.

Thus all education before the day of the Greeks was largely non-progressive.

The Value of the History of Education.— The His- Bjeadii of

"^ ^ ^ ^ view obtained.

tory of Education from the earliest times should contribute largely to one's br^dth of viewand prove a study of the greatest liberal culture. A record of typical instances of the moral, aesthetic, and intellectual development of man in all lands and at all periods should certainly enlarge one's vision and enable him to appreciate more fully the part that education has played in the progress of civilization. Such cultural values may be found even in a limited survey of the world's educational development.

Space and j^g Treatment in This Book.— And this is all that

perspective

here given to will be undertaken here. For, while valuable as a liberal

subject matter. . , . . . .

study, the History of Education finds its justification chiefly in the degree to which it functions in the professional training of a teacher, and it will be necessary in a brief treatise to omit or pass over hastily much that might be of interest and value in a more complete account of the development of civilization. Therefore, the amount of space and the perspective afforded the various peoples, epochs, and leaders must here be determined in large measure by the part they have played in the evolution of educationaLinstitutions and practices, and by the light their jiistory sheds upon the aim, organization, content, and method of education to-day. At times, too, the history of a single epoch, state, or educational leader will be selected as a type, to the exclusion of others equally important, and treated with considerable intensiveness, instead of describing all sides of the subject with encyclopaedic monotony. Now the first historical epoch to leave a real impress upon modern practice is that of Athens at its height. Hence a mere statement of the sahent features of education preceding that period is all that can be afiforded in this brief survey. A detailed account of the educational processes used by savage tribes. Oriental nations, and even Judaea may prove interesting and important in other connections, but it must here be largely curtailed.

through elders Primitive Education. — There is httle to be noted

and medicine- .,,,.. r ,i • 'j.- i

men ties the m the training of the young among primitive peoples, save that it is intended largely for the satisfaction of savage to the

° •' present.

immediate wants — food, clothing, and shelter. Naturally no such actual institution as a school has yet been evolved, but the training is transmitted informally by the parents. The method used is simply that of example and imitation, or, more specifically, 'trial and success.' But a more conscious and formal education is given at puberty through the 'initiatory ceremonies' (Fig. i). In these rites the youths are definitely instructed by the older men about their relation to the spirits and the totem animals, subordination to the elders, the relations of the sexes, the sacredness of the clansman's obHgations, and other traditional usages. Strict silence is enjoined upon them concerning this information, and to impress it upon their minds, and test their endurance, they are required to fast for several days and are often tortured /

and mutilated. As the savage does not clearly distin- / guish between himself and the tribe to which he belongs, there is practically no development of individuality, and since the race has not yet learned to treasure its experience in writing, he has no record of past experience and is virtually tied to the present.

Oriental Education. — The nations of the ancient Vocational

training and

Orient — Egypt, Babyloma, Assyria, China, India, and class divisions

-p. . 1-1 1 1.1 of the Orient.

Persia — may be said to represent the next higher stage in dvihzation. Their systems of education prepare mostly for vocations, and are not sufl&ciently advanced to undertake a training for manhood or citizenship. But since a division of labor has now been evolved, the training has become more clearly differentiated and fits for specific occupations. In this way, class divisions, or fiven castes, have generally arisen in society, and the young people are educated according to the position in life they desire, or are required to fill. As an illustration of this stage of development, we may consider somewhat in detail the social environment and education of India. anrca/iffy^s" ^n^ia: Its Religion and Castes.— In India, largely tern in India, g^g a result of the debilitating climate, there was formulated about 1 200 B. C. a dreamy philosophy, according to which nothing except Brahma, the one universal spirit, really exists. \ While men would seem to be temporarily allowed a separate existence of their own, it was held that they should remain inactive as far as possible and seek an ultimate absorption into the great Eternal Spirit. ' Although somewhat modified by the infusion of Buddhism, between 500 B. C. and 500 A. D., and by the British occupation of the peninsula during the nineteenth century, this mystic and static religion^ still dominates in India. Connected with it is the caste system, by which the people are divided into four hereditary classes. These are (i) the brahmins, ot. sacerdotal class, which includes all those trained for law, medicine, teaching, and other professional occupations; (2) the warriors, or mihtary and administrative caste; (3) the industrial group; and (4) the sudras, or menial caste. Altogether outside the social order are the pariahs, or outcasts. The caste system is exceedingly strict. One may fall into a lower caste, but he cannot rise, and loss of caste by one person in a family will degrade all the rest.

The Hindu Education. — Hence Hindu education has always endeavored to fill the pupils with the tenets of their religion, and so prepare them for absorption into the Infinite, rather than for activities in this life, andi to preserve the caste system and keep all within the sphere of their occupation. The three upper castes are, therefore, supposed to gain a knowledge of certain sacred Knowledge of works, especially the lourVedas or books of 'knowledge,' and^^rainhig^m the six An^as on pliilosophical and scientific subjects, ^^^s.^"*^ ^^*^'" and the Coc^e of Mann, which is a collection of traditional customs; but few, outside the brahmin class, are ever allowed to take advantage of this opportunity. The warriors are expected to pay more attention to martial exercises, and the industrial caste to acquire through apprenticeship the arts necessary for its hereditary occupations. Sudras, pariahs, and women are generally allowed no education. Except the sudras, all the castes obtain elementary education from a study of the laws, traditions, and customs of the country through the medium of the family, and more recently through village schools held in the open air (Fig. 2). The higher education is largely carried on in brahminic colleges, called pa rts had s, and, as also in the case of the elementary work, the teachers have to be brahmins. Since all learning has been preserved by tradition, the chief methods of instruction are those of mem_orizing^and imitation, Even the later texts are so written as to be easily committed, and the Hnes are sung aloud by the pupils until they have memorized them. Writing is learned by imitating the teacher's copy on the sand with a stick, then on palm leaves with a stylus (Fig. 2), and finally on plane leaves with ink.

Efifect of the Hindu Education. — Hence, among the Much tradj- Hindus education is forbidden to ninety-five per cent of but no progress the population, and, as tar as it does exist, it is a mere stuffing of the memory. It concerns itself but little with mental culture or with preparation for real living. The brahmins have handed down considerable traditional learning, grammar, phonetics, rhetoric, logic, 'Arabic' notation, algebra, astronomy, and medicine, but new knowledge of any sort is barred. The Hindus still plow with sticks of wood, and their crops are harvested and threshed by devices equally primitive. They bake bricks, work metals, and weave cloth, but with the same kind of appliances that were used by their remote ancestors. Until recently, they have been greatly lacking in ambition, self-reliance, and personal responsibility, and have not yet come to any feeling of solidarity or national unity. To them prosperity and progress are foreign ideas. India as Typical of the Orient. — The other countries tion in bondage of the ancient Orient never fixed their social classes in so ^ ^^^ ' hard and fast a manner, and have never included so elaborate a philosophy among the products of their culture. But India may well be considered broadly typical of the stage of development in the Orient. Certain common features appear in the education of all the nations there. In the system of each, the classes below the sacerdotal or priestly are given Httle intellectual education, and the women none at all, but both are trained by apprenticeship in their vocations. Actual schools, both elementary and higher, have been instituted; and the latter, except in China, are conducted at temples or priestly colleges by members of the sacerdotal class. The educational content is naturally traditional. It is, for the most part, ensured against change by being embalmed in sacred books, such as the Vedas. The educational method consists largely in the memorizing of the text and imitation of the copy set, and little attempt