South America, a supplementary geography

Front matter

THE CONTINENTS

AND

THEIR PEOPLE

Preface

No part of the world is attracting more attention than is our sister continent — South America. Along all lines there are evidences of great progress. The Transandine Railroad now unites the Pacific and the Atlantic coasts. Vast sums of money have been used in improving harbor facilities. Sanitary science has made the tropical ports safe places for the white man. Social conditions have been greatly bettered, and educational systems are rapidly undergoing reorganization. The wonderful scenery and the interesting evidences of a vanished civilization found on the Andean plateaus are each year drawing to South America a large number of visitors.

Commercially South America is a field of rapidly increasing importance. A very large part of the world's supply of coffee conies from the state of Sao Paulo in Brazil. The forests of the Amazon furnish vast supplies of rubber. Argentine Republic figures vi PREFACE

prominently in supplying the world with bread and meat. From Chile the countries of western Europe and the United States draw supplies of nitrate of soda to be used in keeping up the fertility of thensoils. Peru has for centuries been a storehouse of silver. The cocoa industry is very important in Ecuador. This is only a partial enumeration of the raw products which South America produces in abundance.

Much of the land, on the temperate plains of the continent even, is unused and invites settlement. In response to this, large numbers of people from Italy, Portugal, Spain and France are pouring in and making homes. There is a demand for rolling-stock, railroad-rails, agricultural machinery and tools, windmills, wire for fences, and many other lines of manufactured articles. The opening of the Panama Canal will promote the development of the whole western slope.

In the city of Washington, District of Columbia, there stands a beautiful building of white marble. This is the home of the Pan American Union, an organization that represents twenty-one American republics and has for its purpose the furthering of their mutual knowledge, interest and helpfulness. Under the leadership of Director General John Barrett, the great work of bringing these countries into more sympathetic relations is going steadily forward.

PREFACE vil

As one means of realizing its purpose, the Pan American Union publishes an illustrated monthly magazine descriptive of all the Central and South American countries, and it issues numerous reports showing their progress and development. It is, in short, a great international bureau of information, where everybody can have questions answered in regard to the countries lying south of the United States as well as about the United States itself, and it will always welcome inquiries from the school children of the United States.

As in previous volumes of The Continents and Their People series, an attempt has been made here to present the physical and human phases of geography in such a way as to cause them to appeal to the interests of children and to lead pupils to see the more obvious relationships between the two.

For a careful reading of the entire manuscript and for many helpful criticisms, the authors tender their thanks to Dr. Fred Allison Howe, Head of the Department of English of the Los Angeles State Normal School. For the use of photographs the authors desire to express their indebtedness to the Pan American Union, to " South America," the Lamport and Holt Line, Rafael del Castillo and Company, New York, Professor R. De C. Ward of Harvard University, Professors Hiram Bingham, Isaiah Bowman and Harry viii ' PREFACE

Foote of Yale Unhersity, Professor William G. Reed, of the University of California, Mrs. William Moran of Pasadena, California, and Mr. Chester W. Brown and Rev. Yernon W. McCombs of Los Angeles, California.

Pasadena, California.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

I. The South American Continent .... 1

II. Venezuela 14

Chapter I

Close to the place where the many mouths of the Orinoco River pour their muddy waters into the sea, Hes one of the most interesting islands in the world; an island upon which there is a lake of pitch. For ages petroleum has been coming to the surface of the earth where this lake is situated. On exposure to the air the petroleum hardens into a substance called pitch. This black and unattractive material is very useful, for it enters into the construction of the asphalt pavements so common in the cities of the United States and Europe.

If you were to visit Port of Spain, the largest city and the chief port of the island, you would see ships loaded with pitch ready to sail to the United States or Europe. At the lake you would find many men digging the pitch by means of picks. Probably you are wondering why the term lake is applied to this deposit. Near the borders people can walk upon it, and tram cars are run back and forth upon a roadbed made of logs and poles. In the middle of the lake the pitch is so soft that it bubbles. The depressions formed by digging the pitch are very quickly filled, as the material moves in by a sort of flowing motion, from the sides and from below.

The lake apparently occupies the crater of an extinct volcano. In one place a stream of pitch about fifteen feet in width slowly fiows from a notch in the rim of the crater. In the lake are a few small wooded islands.

Six years after Columbus discovered North America, he was in command of a fleet sailing northwestward not far from the coast of Venezuela. Suddenly the lookout announced that land was in sight. On the horizon three mountain peaks appeared to rise from the sea. The discoverers soon found that this land was an island. They gave it the name of Trinidad, some say because the first view of it showed the three mountain tops.

This island discovered by Columbus so long ago is the island upon which is located the lake of pitch. This event probably marks the discovery of South America, although Columbus died ignorant of the real importance of his work. Other explorers quickly followed, and many settlements were made on both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts of South America. The first of these was Cumana, in what is now Venezuela; founded in the year 1521. This is the oldest permanent European settlement in the New World. What is the oldest European settlement in North America ?

While but a small part of North America lies in the torrid zone, a large part of South America is so situated. Point Gallinas in Venezuela is about eight degrees north of the equator, while Cape Horn is practically fifty-five degrees south of the equator. North America is widest in the temperate zone, but South America has its greatest width in the torrid zone. Using the scale, find the greatest length of South America along the meridian, and the east to west dimension on the fifth parallel of latitude south.

You will observe that practically all of South America lies east of the eightieth meridian of west longitude. Trace this meridian northward and you will see that it just touches the southwestern coast of Florida, passes within a few miles of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and crosses the eastern part of Hudson Bay. Because of the position of our southern neighbor, it might as truly be called East America as South America. Each day the sun rises in Rio Janeiro more than two hours before it rises in Pittsburgh. Can you explain this ?

The Isthmus of Panama connects the two Americas. It was from this isthmus that Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Where this isthmus is the narrowest, the Panama Canal was completed in 1913. The channel of the canal is broad and deep and big enough to accommodate the largest ocean vessels. The water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific through this canal is thousands of miles shorter than the old route around Cape Horn. Coast trade between the eastern and the western ports of the American continents and even ocean trade between Europe and Asia can now be carried on more quickly and easily than before the canal was built.

The coast line of South America is more regular than that of our continent, or of Europe. It has no great projections such as Alaska, Labrador and Florida, and no great indentations such as Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. The central part of the western coast of South America is remarkably regular. This is due to the fact that the land in that section is rising. The lack of good harbors is a great disadvantage to commerce. In some cases ships must load and unload their cargoes some distance from shore. This is done by means of flat-bottomed boats called lighters. The southwestern coast is very irregular, being much like that of Norway or southern Alaska. This irregularity is due to a sinking of the land and to glacial action.

The area of South America is about 7,000,000 square miles. It is very much larger than Europe, and nearly twice as large as Australia, but it is much smaller than

'**'^' »1

Mf^ m^^SM

¥'JB

1:

K|k

^^mniH

B^fe^ vJJL^t

^M

1 ^ mf jWf

'fll sH

^B

^K^jK/

Fig. 4. — Relief map of South America.

any of the other continents. Find the area of Asia and Africa.

As in North America^ we find a mountain system in the east, plains in the interior, and mountains parallel to the western coast. The Serra do Espinhaco is the name of the chief range in the eastern system. Although one of them is nearly 10,000 feet in altitude, none of the peaks rise above the snow line.

The Andes are among the loftiest mountains in the world. Even in the torrid zone many of their peaks are permanently snow-covered. Bolivia has several mountains more than 20,000 feet in altitude, while Aconcagua, in Argentina, is nearly 24,000 feet high. In a geological sense the Andes are young, and there are in the system many volcanic mountains, while earthquakes are of frequent occurrence. In the southern part of Chile, owing to abundant precipitation, there are many glaciers and much timber.

The Andes, like the Rocky Mountains, form a serious obstacle to the construction of railroads. Only one railroad connects the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. This extends from Valparaiso on the west to Buenos Aires on the east. Lofty plateaus in the temperate zone are too cold to favor settlement, but those of tropical South America are thickly populated. It was upon these plateaus that the most highly civilized of the ancient inhabitants lived.

Three great rivers drain the Atlantic slope of South America — the Orinoco, the Amazon and the La Plata. These rivers are navigable for long distances and are important commercially. This is particularly true of the Amazon. Some of the commerce between the western coast of South America and our eastern coast and Europe, is carried on by way of the Amazon and its tributaries. There are few towns along the mighty Amazon because much of its basin is a dense forest.

As so much of South America is situated in the torrid zone, cotton, rice, sugar, coffee, cocoa, bananas, oranges and rubber are important products. While it is always summer on the lowlands in the tropical portions of the continent, perpetual winter reigns upon the most lofty mountains. In ascending from the plains of the Amazon to the top of Chimborazo or Cotopaxi one would pass through all of the zones, and see the forms of life that belong to each.

The southern part of South America is as far from the equator as is central Labrador, and it therefore has cold winters. While for us July is a midsummer month, it is a midwinter month in all of South America south of the equator. This does not mean cold weather, however, except upon the mountains and in the southern part.

North of the equator the northeast trade winds prevail, while the southeast trades prevail in that part of the continent between the thirtieth parallel south and the equator. These winds, having blown over the ocean, are full of moisture. As they come in contact with the Gkiiana Highlands, the Brazilian Highlands

and the Andes, they are chilled and rain falls in abundance.

The dense forests of the Amazon basin are due to the heavy rainfall and the high temperature.

The trades have the effect of making the summers cooler than they otherwise would be.

In the neighborhood of the equator the northeast and the southeast trade winds meet. In this belt, known as the Doldrums, the air, owing to the low pressure, is constantly rising. When the rising air reaches a great height, it is cooled to such an extent that rain falls. This occurs practically every day, and therefore this belt is often called the belt of daily rains.

Fig. 5.

Map showing distribution of rainfall.

During the summer season for the northern hemisphere this belt moves northward, and during the winter season it moves southward. This shifting of the Doldrums brings the rainy and dry seasons to certain parts of equatorial South America.

That part of the western coast which is situated in the trade wind belt and outside of the Doldrums is very dry because the rain is deposited on the east side of the Andes. Here is situated the long and narrow Atacama Desert. Farther south where the westerly winds prevail the west coast is abundantly watered; and has dense forests.

South America is very rich in minerals, especially in the western part. Here gold and silver have been mined for many centuries. When the Spanish landed they found much gold and silver in the possession of the natives. This was largely in the form of plate and ornaments used in the temples and in the palaces of the Incas.

There are to-day vast deposits of gold, silver, copper, mercury, iron, tin and petroleum. In Brazil diamonds are mined, while Colombia leads the world in the production of emeralds, and Chile has vast wealth in the form of nitrate of soda, used as a fertilizer.

Industry and commerce are not as highly developed in South America as they are in North America and Europe, Lack of development is due to several causes.

In some sections tropical climate is a hindrance. The dense forests along the Amazon make it difficult for man to obtain a foothold. As already pointed out, the lofty Andes make it exceedingly expensive to connect the east and the west by rail. For a long time there has been much political disturbance in South America, and this is another obstacle to rapid progress.

For about three centuries the people of South America were governed by Spain and Portugal, but they finally rebelled and established republics. The continent is now made up of ten republics and three colonies. There are a large number of Indians and they are of comparatively little direct aid in the development of the continent.

South America is undergoing a great transformation, however. People from some of the crowded countries of Europe, especially Italy and Portugal, are pouring into the continent and settling on the rich agricultural lands. This is especially true in Argentine Republic where there are vast prairies like those in the United States and Canada. Here wheat, corn, flax and other crops are grown, and great herds of horses, cattle and sheep roam. Both settlers and capital are being attracted to Brazil on account of the coffee industry.

The exports of South America are chiefly raw products. Minerals, meat, hides, wool, grain, rubber, coffee and cocoa are important. The imports are for

THE SOUTH AMEBIC AN CONTINENT 13

the most part manufactured goods. Although we export to South America farming implements, cars, engines, carriages, sewing machines, t)^ewriters, cotton goods and many other things, our commerce with South America is much smaller than is that of Great Britain or Germany. Both of these countries outrank us in the number of ships engaged in commerce, and they make more effort to secure trade than do we.

Each year the number of tourists who visit South America increases. Her wonderful scenery, her climate, her wealth of tropical plants, the remnants of her ancient civilizations and her beautiful modern cities are attracting many people. Thus our sister continent is rapidly coming to occupy a very important place in industry, commerce and travel.

Chapter II

, If you were to visit the shores of Lake Maracaibo^ you would find many Indians hving in huts built upon poles or stakes driven into the marshy ground that borders this large body of water. For hundreds of years the Indians have lived in this fashion; for as early as 1499, Ojeda, a Spaniard who had previously sailed with Columbus, entered the lake, and finding a village built in this manner, he called it Venezuela, meaning Little Venice, because it reminded him of Venice, Italy. The name then given to an Indian village came to be applied to the whole country.

One of the villages that we can visit to-day is Santa Rosa. It is but a short distance from the city of Maracaibo, and is one mile from the shore of the lake. The walls of the houses are of woven rushes and grasses, and the roofs are thatched. Tied to the poles upon which the houses are built we see canoes, for these furnish the only means of communication with the land.

The largest of these settlements is a town of considerable size, having a population of about 3000. Its houses are built in rows much as they would be if on the land. The inhabitants make their calls and transact their business in canoes instead of in cars and cabs. This town is about three miles from the shore.

While life in these dwellings so far from the shore has its disadvantages in many ways, it has some advantages. These people depend to some considerable extent upon the fishing industry, and this they can easily carry on. In the past, their position afforded them much protection against their enemies. In a warm and moist climate mosquitoes are sometimes a serious pest. They are much more numerous along the shore of a lake or a marsh then they are on the water some distance from the land.

Venezuela as a country is very little like the islands upon which Venice is situated. It has lofty mountains, extensive plains and dense forests. It is more than ten times as large as New York State, but has fewer inhabitants. It is the only republic in South America situated wholly north of the equator. It has an extensive coast line, and its many fine bays are a great advantage to commerce.

From Lake Maracaibo almost to the mouth of the Orinoco a tangle of mountains parallels the coast. These ranges are an extension of the Andean system. Although in the torrid zone, some of their peaks rise above the snow line, which is here about 13,500 feet above the sea. South of these mountains is a vast prairie region called the llanos. Millions of cattle feed upon these grassy plains. Beyond the llanos are extensive forests, some of which have not yet been fully explored. In the southeast is another mountainous region separating Venezuela from Brazil.

Fig. 7. — View on the Orinoco River, Venezuela.

None of these mountains is permanently snow-covered; although some of the peaks are 8000 feet in altitude.

The Orinoco is one of the great rivers of the world. It is fed by countless streams^ many of which have their sources in the Andes or in the mountains in the southeastern part. These tributaries bring to the Orinoco an immense load of ground-up rock; most of which is deposited close to the mouth of the great stream. ThuS; as the highlands wear down, the great delta of the Orinoco is constantly being extended seaward. Name other rivers that are building deltas.

For hundreds of miles from the sea the Orinoco is deep enough to float the largest ships. Because of this, the river is of great value commercially; although comparatively few steamboats are used. The chief city on the river is Ciudad Bolivar. This is the limit of navigation for the largest ships, but the river is navigable to a point less than 100 miles from Bogota in a straight line. Some of the exports and imports of eastern Colombia follow this route.

A most remarkable fact about the Orinoco is that it is connected with the Amazon. The Cassiciuiare is the connecting link between the Rio Negro, a great tributary of the Amazon, and the Orinoco. A marshy region makes this connection possible. Indians and explorers sometimes travel in boats from one of these great river systems to the other, but this cannot be done in large ships. Sometime the Orinoco and the Amazon may be connected b}^ means of a canal.

There are many lakes in Venezuela, the largest of which is Lake Maracaibo. This is a body of water about 150 miles long by 75 miles wide and having an area greater than that of Lake Ontario. Examine f

J mm the map and you will see that it is really a great bay connected with the sea by several narrow channels. While the lake is deep, there are sand bars at the entrance to these channels. This makes it impossible for large ships to go in and out. On the west shore of the entrance to Lake Maracaibo stands the city of the same name, founded nearly 350 years ago.

Being in the torrid zone the lowlands of Venezuela are of course hot, but the highlands, according to their altitude, are cool or even cold. In fact, all of the zones are represented. In most parts of Venezuela there are but two seasons, the wet and the dry. The rainy season is in the summer, and the dry season in the winter. Owing to the latitude of Venezuela, summer and winter do not of course mean what they do in our country.

The products vary according to the climate. On the lowlands, where there is plenty of moisture, bananas, sugar, coffee, cocoa and coconuts are produced. On the higher lands corn, wheat, beans and other crops of the temperate zone flourish. In the forests south of the llanos, rubber, dye woods, vanilla and other useful products are found.

Venezuela has considerable mineral wealth. Much gold exists in the southeastern part of the country. Copper, iron, coal and salt are also known to exist. The fact that iron and coal have not yet been mined

Fhotu bi/ Mrs. William Moran.

Fig. 9. — Water carrier, La Guaira.

extensively is one reason why so little manufacturing is carried on.

La Guaira^ the chief port; is a very old city, founded in 1558. It is situated at the base of a mountain which rises very abruptly to a height of more than 8000 feet. The name of this mountain is La Silla, which in Spanish means the saddle. It is so named because of its form. The temperature at La Guaira is higher than it would be were it not for the heat reflected from the almost perpendicular mountain side. The space between the mountain and the sea is very narrow, and the city practically consists of a number of parts connected by a single street along the ocean front.

If a tunnel some six or seven miles in length were cut through La Silla, it would connect La Guaira with Caracas, the capital and largest city of Venezuela. One of the most wonderful railroads in the world connects the two cities, but its length is about twentytwo miles. It zigzags along the mountain side, climbing to an altitude of 3200 feet, and then dropping more than 1000 feet to the capital city.

Caracas lies in a beautiful valley surrounded by mountains. The valley, which is about twelve miles in length by four in width, is watered by the river Guira. Round about the city are sugar and coffee plantations. Owing to the altitude, the temperature

I'hnin hij Mrs. William Moran.

Fig. 10. — Railroad and wagon road from La Guaira to Caracas,

Venezuela.

is more moderate than it otherwise would be, averaging about 70° F. What is the average temperature where you Hve ?

In 1812 a terrible earthquake practically destroyed Caracas. As earthquakes are frequent, the houses are low. They are usually built of stone or plaster and are very commonly painted yellow or blue. The roofs are generally of red tile. Here, as elsewhere, the Spanish people often build their houses on three sides of a court called a jpatio. This is invisible from the street, and affords a most delightful place for family and other gatherings. During pleasant weather the meals are often served here. Palms and other ornamental trees, as well as fragrant flowers, abound, and usually there is a fountain of sparkling water.

As there is little need of fire for warmth, there are few stoves in the city, and therefore few chimneys. The houses are very much alike in architecture. The residence of the president of Venezuela is known as the ^^ Yellow House" instead of the ^'.White House."

Venezuela was the first of the South American countries to declare her independence. A document corresponding to our Declaration of Independence was signed on July 5, 1811. Not until 1831, however, did the people gain their independence.

Not far west of La Guaira is Puerto Cabello. This city is practically at sea level, and is therefore very hot.

It is connected by rail with Valencia, a city about fifty miles inland. Similarly, Tucacas is connected with Barquisimeto. This latter city receives the products of the back country by means of pack animals.

Maracaibo, one of the most important ports, is at the southern end of the neck of water that connects the Gulf of Venezuela with Lake Maracaibo. The town was founded in 1571, but was twice destroyed by the Indians. It is built in the form of a crescent of several miles in extent. The older houses are built in the Spanish style, having a court or patio. The bright-colored buildings, with their red tile roofs, look very attractive as seen through the foliage of the tropical vegetation.

As already pointed out, Ciudad Bolivar, named for the patriot Bolivar, is a city of considerable commercial importance. It is situated on a bluff overlooking the Orinoco and is well above high water. Considerable gold is exported, and many cigars are manufactured. The population is about 15,000.

Industry and commerce in Venezuela are hindered by lack of railroads as well as by the character of the people. There is no thrifty middle class. The people are either rich or poor. The exports are chiefly raw products. The most important are cattle, hides, coffee, cocoa. The chief imports are manufactured articles. Considerable trade is carried on with the

United States. This is in part due to the proximity of the two countries.

There is a large Indian population in Venezuela, and therefore there are many people who can neither read nor write. In the past the people have been very unsettled politically, and there have been many revolutions ; but conditions have improved greatly in recent years. The people are characterized by their hospitality and politeness, as well as by their love of music and the drama.

Photo by Mrs. William Moran.

Fig. 13. — Statue of Bolivar, Caracas, Venezuela.

Chapter III The Guianas

British Guiana

There are but three colonies on the continent of South America, and the largest of these belongs to Great Britain. British Guiana is larger than England, but as most of the country is a jungle, the population is very sparse, averaging under five to the square mile. The Dutch, who formerly controlled the region, reclaimed some of the flat land along the coast, and this is still the most thickly settled part.

Inland from the low coastal plain there is a plateau of sandstone, and still farther to the south there are mountains. Where the rivers flow from the plateau to the softer rocks of the plain, rapids and falls have developed. Where in the United States are there falls caused in this way ? These falls obstruct navigation.

On the Potoro River, which is a tributary of the Essiquibo, is one of the most wonderful falls of the world, known as the Kaieteur. If these falls were in our country or in Europe, they would be visited by

THE GUIANAS 31

thousands of people yearly. Very few white people have seen them, for they are far from towns or even roads. A great sheet of water drops over the rocks a distance of 741 feet, or about five times as far as the water falls at Niagara. The movement of the falls upstream has left a wonderful gorge. You remember' that below the Niagara Falls there is a gorge several miles long.

The chmate is hot, and the temperature varies but little from one part of the year to another. On the lowlands near the coast the yearly rainfall averages 100 inches or more, and on the hills and mountains it is heavier than this. These conditions cause a luxuriant growth of vegetation. Unless man prevents, the jungle, when cleared away, is very quickly replaced by nature.

In the forests bright-colored parrots and toucans chatter noisily. The eagle, the white heron, the ibis, the egret and a host of other birds are common. The great snake called the anaconda may sometimes be seen, and alligators make their homes in the streams.

Georgetown, the capital, is at the mouth of the Demerara River. The city is built upon land so low that a great wall about a mile in length has been constructed to keep out the sea. On the seaward side of the wall is a strip of white sand thrown up by the waves, while on the other there are palm trees, shrubs and flowers. In the evening the people congregate upon this wall where they can enjoy the cool seabreeze.