Europe; a supplementary geography

Front matter

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THE CONTINENTS

AND

Preface

The relations between North America and Europe are so numerous and so intimate that the study of Europe should follow that of our home continent. There should be constant comparison as to position, surface, climate, and human conditions. This comparison presents a review and a new view as well.

More attention should now be given to connecting cause and consequence, to map study, and to the use of illustrations. It will add interest and profit to the work if pupils are given an opportunity to trace the journeys which relatives or friends may have made in European countries, and to tell something of the geography of the countries and cities visited.

We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to Mr. George Howell and Professor S. Webster French, of Pasadena, and Dr. Walter A. Edwards, of the Los Angeles High School, for the excellent illustrations furnished by them.

THE AUTHORS,

Pasadena, California, December, 1911.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

I. The Continent of Europe 1

III. The Metropolis of the World .... 28

Chapter I The Continent Of Europe

One summer morning we left our hotel in the home of our national government, and walked down Pennsylvania Avenue Passing in front of the White House, where the President lives, we crossed the extensive grounds. To the south the Washington Monument towered above the trees to a height of more than 500 feet. In the distance wound the Potomac River, stretching away past Arlington Cemetery and Mount Vernon. We soon left the White House behind, and before us rose the massive stone building of the State, War, and Navy Departments.

Passing up the steps of this building, we entered a room over the door of which was a sign reading, " Passports." A clerk at a desk asked our names, ages, and residences ; where we were born, our occupations, and other questions. After making affidavit that our written answers to these questions were correct, we were each given an important appearing document.

Each paper bore a large government seal, and was signed by the Secretary of State. These documents were passports, and they cost one dollar each.

We obtained these passports because we were going to travel in foreign countries, and might at some time need the help which our government, through these papers, could give us. In case of sickness, accident, or of difficulty with a private citizen or official of any country, passports serve as a means of identification. Not every one who leaves the United States to travel in other countries secures passports. In most countries passports are not required, and they are seldom actually needed, but in other countries they are necessary.

From Washington we went by train to New York, where we boarded a great Atlantic liner. The dock was a very busy place. People were bidding good-by to relatives and friends, and baggage was being hurried on board. Soon our boat left her dock, and entered the bay. On our right lay Ellis Island, where the immigrants are landed. A little farther on we passed the Statue of Liberty, situated on Bedloe's Island. Soon we passed through the Narrows and entered the Atlantic Ocean. Slowly the lofty buildings of the great city seemed to sink below the water, and at last they faded entirely from our sight.

Fig.

THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE 3

Our ship was the Lusitania, 790 feet in length. Seven ships of this length, if placed end to end, would measure a mile. She carried about 2000 passengers in addition to a crew of 800 persons. Of course much food is required for such a large company of people for a single day, and our trip was

Courtesy of the Cunard Steamship Company.

Fig. 2. — Lusitania.

to last for five days. There were on board several thousand pounds of meat, in addition to fish, poultry, eggs, and game. There were many barrels of potatoes and flour, tubs of butter, cans of milk, vegetables, fresh fruits, and other provisions. Wagon loads of ice were required to keep the food in the very best condition. As the ship burns about 1000 tons of coal daily, a great quantity of this was placed in the hunkers before starting.

As the Lusitania rushed along over the waters of the Atlantic we remembered that more than 400 years ago Columbus sailed across this same sea in a small ship, for in those days steamships had not been invented. For seventy-one days his little vessel, and the two others that accompanied it, were tossed by wind and wave. Columbus did not know what kind of land he would finally reach, nor in fact that he would ever reach land, although he hoped to reach Asia. His sailors became much alarmed, and begged their leader to turn back, but Columbus had faith and courage, and at last triumphed.

On our voyage to Europe, for that was where we were going, we saw several vessels bound for America. They carried people from different countries of Europe who were on their way to the United States, not as tourists, but as settlers. About 1,000,000 immigrants land in our country yearly. When Columbus discovered America there were no white inhabitants on our continent, and it was people from Europe who colonized the land.

Europe is about as large as the United States, but its population is more than four times as great. The area of the British Isles is but three times that of the state of Ohio, yet they have nearly one half as many people as are found in our entire country. Because of the dense population in European countries, wages are low. Land is so expensive that many of the farmers do not own the soil that they till, but rent it of landlords. Most of the countries support large

THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE 5

armies and navies, and therefore the taxes are high. In our country men do not have to join the army except in case of war, and not always then. In most European countries all able-bodied men, with few exceptions, are obliged to serve in the army for a certain length of time. These are the important reasons why so many Europeans leave their homes to settle in the United States.

The coast line of Europe is very irregular, and there are many good harbors. This favors both commerce and fishing. There are many peninsulas, the most important being Scandinavia, Jutland, the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, and the Balkan Peninsula. Great seas, gulfs, and bays enter the land. Name and locate the most important. These great irregularities help to make the climate of the parts of Europe near the coast quite mild and uniform.

The northern part of the continent of Europe is largely a plain sloping toward the Atlantic Ocean. In the southern part of western Europe there are many mountain systems and plateaus, but in Russia the plain extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Black and the Caspian seas. The Valdai Hills serve as a water parting between some of the north and some of the south flowing rivers of European Russia.

Europe has no such great rivers as are found in North America, but those that flow across the great plain are navigable, and some of them are of very great value. The most important of these is the Rhine. Along its banks are many busy German cities, and thousands of boats carrying freight and passengers go up and down the river yearly. The Elbe and the Seine are other rivers of great commercial value. The longest of the European rivers are the Danube and the Volga. As the Volga flows into the Caspian Sea, its commercial value is not so great as it would be if it flowed into the Atlantic or the Mediterranean.

The prevailing winds are the westerlies, and, as in North America, they moderate the temperature of the western part of the continent, and bring a plentiful supply of rain. As we travel eastward, we find that the summers are warmer, the winters colder, and the climate drier. Europe has no great dry regions, such as are found both east and west of the Rocky Mountains. In Europe there is no great mountain system that prevents the westerly winds from distributing their moisture over the plain. Much of the plain is so far north that the temperature is not so high, nor is evaporation so rapid as on our western plains. The lowlands along the Mediterranean have a climate much like that of Southern California, , and their products are similar. The countries along the Mediterranean Sea were the parts

THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE 7

of Europe first civilized. There were high civilizations in Greece and Italy long before the beginning of the Christian Era. In fact, many of the cities were very old when America was discovered. In those days streets were usually narrow, and often crooked, and in many cases they have remained as they were laid out. Such narrow streets cannot accommodate street cars, and so much traveling is done in carriages and omnibuses. All of these things, and many others, are of much interest.

To the north of Italy the Alps rise like a great wall between this country and Switzerland. Some of the peaks are so high that they are snow-covered summer as well as winter, and many glaciers exist. Before the days of railroads, crossing these mountains was a tedious undertaking. Several tunnels have been dug through them, and thousands of people now visit them yearly because of their beautiful scenery.

There are many mountain systems in Europe, and they are in part responsible for the fact that there are so many nations. On some of the mountains there are great forests. The people have been cutting the timber for many centuries, and to-day there are few European countries that do not import lumber. In Germany, Switzerland, and France the forests are handled with great care. We have learned much from the people of these countries regarding forestry. As in the mountains in our own country, there is mineral wealth of various kinds. Water and electric power are developed also.

Although the United States is such a large country, and has so many people, we find the same language spoken in all parts of it. The Europeans who come here to live very soon learn the English language, and use it, except in their homes and in gatherings of their own people. In Europe there are many languages. In England the people speak the language with which we are familiar, but as soon as we have crossed the English Channel we find that other languages are spoken ; French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian, Greek, and Russian are some of them. In the cities we can always find people who can use English.

There are also great differences between the people of the different countries as to dress and customs.

To most of you, some country in Europe is, in a certain sense, the "mother country." Perhaps your parents were born in America, but your earlier ancestors came from some foreign country. Americans are the descendants of those whom we call foreigners. We are all proud of this great country in which we live, but we shall be better Americans for having studied Europe and her people.

Fig. 3.

Chapter II

Of the thousands of islands that rise above the waters of the ocean, the British Isles are by far the most important. There are two large islands in the group — Great Britain and Ireland — and many smaller ones. Although the combined area of these islands is less than that of the state of California, their population is nearly one half as great as that of the United States.

The land controlled by Great Britain is known as the British Empire, the area of which is equal to about one fifth of the land surface of the globe. In every continent there are portions of this vast empire, and in all parts of the ocean there are islands that belong to it.

Long ago what are now the British Isles was a part of the mainland of Europe. A sinking of the land gradually allowed the waters of the ocean to creep in, covering a part of the plain, and converting higher land to the west into islands. The Strait of Dover, which in its narrowest part is only about twenty miles wide, rolls between England and France. Ships are constantly passing between the British Isles and the continent, but several hundred years ago the trip was not made very frequently. This separation from the mainland was a great advantage to the people of the British Isles, for they were less disturbed by wars than they would otherwise have been.

Rivers from the mainland of Europe, as well as from, the British Isles, carry to the shallow waters of the North Sea and the English Channel much material which fish use as food. The abundance of fish in these waters, as well as the large number of harbors, causes fishing to be extensively carried on in Great Britain. Aberdeen, Hull, and Great Grimsby are very important fishing centers. Locate these places.

The southern part of the British Isles is several hundred miles farther north than New York City, and yet there is little cold weather there. This is because the westerly winds blow from the ocean, which is never very cold, to the land. As the ocean is cooler than the land during the summer, the winds prevent the land from becoming very warm. When the early English settlers came to America they suffered a great deal because the winters were much colder than in England.

When the moisture-laden westerly winds strike the mountains in the British Isles, they leave an abundance of rain upon the western slope. This amounts yi places to more than 100 inches per year. Because of this, forests were extensive in early times, but they have been largely cut down. The plentiful supply of rain favors meadows and pastures, and many cattle are raised, especially in Ireland. On the eastern slope the rainfall is much lighter than on the western, being in some places less than twenty inches yearly.

Much of the land in Great Britain is too mountainous for agriculture, while in Ireland there is a great deal of boggy land. These conditions, as well as the dense population, make agriculture on a large scale impossible. Because of this, and because manufacturing is more profitable than farming, the inhabitants of the British Isles depend upon other people for much of their food. Corn, which in the United States is the most valuable crop, cannot be grown, because the summer weather is not warm enough. The cool, moist climate of Scotland and Ireland favors the growing of oats on the lowlands. Wheat, potatoes, meat, eggs, poultry, butter, cheese,, rice, tea, coffee, and fruits are imported in great quantities. If for a single month food from other lands were not shipped to the British Isles, the people would suffer.

The great wealth of these islands consists in coal, of which there is a tremendous supply. Our country is the only one in which more coal is mined than in

Great Britain. There is also much iron, and some tin and copper. The coal is used in operating mills and factories, where goods of all kinds are manufactured, and a great deal is exported. Because coal is so heavy, most of the raw materials used in manufacturing can be carried to the coal fields more cheaply than the coal can be taken to them. Besides, if the people of the British Isles do the manufacturing, the raw products must be taken there; for most of them, if produced in these islands at all, are produced in small quantities.

We find, therefore, that the great industrial centers are close to the coal and iron deposits. All kinds of metal goods, from needles and pins to locomotives, are manufactured in the British Isles, and sold in all parts of the world. You remember that our country is the greatest cotton producer in the world. Much American cotton lands at Liverpool. From here it is shipped to Manchester and other cities in the same locality, where it is made into cotton goods. Woolen goods are made at Leeds and Bradford, and silk goods at Paisley. Ireland produces considerable flax, and this is made into linen cloth, and into handkerchiefs and laces at Dublin. So great and constant is the demand for manufactured goods in nearly all parts' of the world, that some of the mills and factories are operated day and night.

In order to secure the raw products, as well as to carry the manufactured goods of the British Isles to other lands, a large number of ships are needed. There is also a powerful navy to protect the commerce and the colonies in all parts of the world.

Many thousands of Americans visit the British Isles every year. A very large number of these land at Liverpool because that city faces our eastern coast. In the harbor there are ships from all parts of the globe. Some are freight ships loading or unloading merchandise, and some are passenger vessels. Both railroads and a canal connect Liverpool with Manchester, about thirty-five miles distant. On the south side of the Mersey stands Birkenhead. Tunnels which have been dug under the river connect the two places.

Let us imagine ourselves landing at the great port of Liverpool. Before leaving the ship we exchange some of our American money for English money. At first it bothers us a little to know just what we are to pay for things, but we soon become accustomed to the system. A pound is equal to about ^Ye dollars of our money ; a shilling to twenty-five cents ; a sixpence to twelve cents ; a penny to two cents.

A short distance southeast of Liverpool is the ancient town of Chester, established by the Romans.

The city is situated upon the River Dee. In early times the river was more navigable than it is now,

Fig. 5. — An English cottage with a thatched roof.

for the removal of the forests has caused the stream to deposit much silt in the channel. A part of the old wall which once surrounded the city remains, and we may walk for some distance upon it and obtain a good view of the surrounding country. We notice that in some cases there are sidewalks in front of the second story as well as the ground floor of stores. There are stairways at the ends of the blocks so that people may go up and down.

The southcentral part of England is a beautiful country. There are fertile farms, green meadows and pastures, and parklike areas with wide-spreading trees. The country roads are almost as smooth as city streets, and well-trimmed hedges border juany of them. Some of the farmhouses have thatched roofs instead of shingled roofs. In this beautiful country, situated upon the Avon River, is Stratford, the home of Shakespeare. The town is small and quiet. The names of some of the hotels or inns would interest you. There is a sign which says " Red Horse Inn"; "Golden Lion," "Red Lion," and "Black Swan" are the names of other inns.

Shakespeare's early home is still standing. We enter the room where the great writer was born, and we see the desk at which he sat when at school. It is tall and rough, and quite unlike the school desks now in use. Many of the articles of furniture used by the family have been preserved. A path overarched by magnificent trees leads from the street to the old church in which Shakespeare was buried.

Only a few miles from Stratford is the ruined castle of Kenilworth. It was built of red sandstone, and had several great towers. A part of the ditch or moat that once surrounded the castle may be seen.

Fig. 6. — Birthplace of Shakespeare.

The town of Warwick is situated in this same beautiful part of England. It is a very interesting place, and a part of the city wall and one of the gates remain. Through this gate electric cars now run. An extensive forest, in which the deer and other animals were hunted, once covered all of this section. There is a little hotel in the town which was built in 1380, over 100 years before Columbus discovered America. About 300 years ago several people in the town gave sums of money which were to be used as a fund in furnishing bread to the poor. The practice is still followed. Every Saturday night

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Fig. 7. — A bit of the ruined castle of Kenilworth.

loaves of bread are placed upon shelves in St. Mary's Church. They are marked with the names of the men who gave the money so many years ago.

In this town there is a very old castle, but unlike Kenilworth it is still occupied. It is called Warwick Castle. It is situated upon the bank of the Avon River, and is surrounded by a high stone wall.

Just outside of the wall is a mill where grain used to be ground. Great towers with very narrow windows rise from the corners of the castle. In the moat, which was once filled with water, ferns and other plants are now growing. We cross the little bridge and enter the gate. Above our heads is the portcullis, a gate of iron which could be lowered to keep out an enemy. A road cut in solid rock winds into the grounds. Over this road warriors clad in armor have ridden many times.

We pay a fee of two shillings and are admitted to the castle. In one room there is furniture centuries old. Among other pieces is a beautiful table that stood in a house on the Grand Canal in Venice in 1490. In another room we see armor, helmets, spears, axes, swords, crossbows, and other things used hundreds of years ago. The " Cedar Room " is made from red cedar that came from trees on the estate. In this room are many noted paintings.

To the north of England is Scotland, a very mountainous country. The Grampian Mountains spread over much of the central part, and this section is known as the Scottish Highlands. The highest peak, Ben Nevis, 4406 feet in altitude, is the most lofty mountain in the British Isles. This peak is not snow covered in summer, but in sheltered spots on its slopes there are banks of snow at all times of the year.

So rugged is the surface of Scotland that less than one thn-d of it can be tilled. The highlands are therefore sparsely populated. The absence of coal is another reason why the highlands have comparatively few people.

Upon the hills and mountains many sheep are pastured, but much of the beautiful mountain country, with its streams and lakes is rented to wealthy men. During the summer it serves as a fishing and hunting ground for these people.

As it was difficult to build roads in the highlands, the people in early days were divided into many groups, known as clans. This same difficulty explains why the inhabitants of the highlands have not progressed as rapidly as have the people on the lowlands. In many of the homes candles are still in use.

East of the Grampian Hills there is a coastal plain, and here the population is dense. Aberdeen, sometimes called the " Granite City," is situated upon

Fig.

Photo, by Edwards.

the coast at the mouth of the Dee. Many of the buildings are constructed of granite quarried in the vicinity. You have already learned that Aberdeen is an important fishing center.

South of Aberdeen, on the north shore of the Firth of Tay, is Dundee. This is the largest city in northern Scotland, and textiles are manufactured very extensively. It is also a fishing center.

The lowlands, which extend from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, are rich in coal and iron. Therefore much manufacturing is carried on, and there are large cities and a dense population. Edinburgh guards the entrance to the lowlands, and therefore became the capital of the country. It is not a manufacturing center and is not a seaport, being situated a few miles from the coast. It has a noted university.

Near the w^estern end of the lowlands on the Clyde is the city of Glasgow. The river has been deepened so that large ships reach the city. As there is much iron and coal in the vicinity, a great deal of manufacturing is carried on. Many steel ships are built, and iron and steel goods, as well as textiles, are manufactured. As there is much agriculture carried on upon the lowlands, this adds to the importance of the city. Glasgow is the second city in population in the British Isles.

About thirty miles from Glasgow is Stirling, one of the most ancient cities of Scotland. Its position at the head of navigation on the Forth made ifc the iP

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Fig. 10. — Soldiers at Stirling Castle, Scotland.

natural key to Scotland. The weather-beaten towers of Stirling Castle rise from a hill, and overlook a beautiful country. In this castle kings have been born, and it has sheltered many brave Scottish leaders, Wallace among others. The uniform of the soldiers who guard the castle and the city to-day is quite different from that worn by soldiers in our country. The coastal plain which lies between the Cheviot

Hills and the North Sea is only a few miles wide. This has always served as a gateway between England and Scotland, and here some important battles between the English and the Scotch were fought. To-day a railroad extends along the coastal plain.

Fig. 11. — A castle in Wales.

Wales, a very mountainous country, stretches between the southern coast of the Irish Sea and Bristol Channel. Opposite Dublin, on Anglesey Island, is Holyhead. A railroad crosses the narrow strait that separates this island from the mainland.

In the southern part of Wales much coal is mined, and Cardiff is a great coal exporting center. Because of the rugged character of Wales the people have not changed their language and customs as rapidly as they otherwise would.

Ireland is known as the "Emerald Isle," because so much of the island is green. This condition is

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Photo, hy French,

Fig. 12. — A donkey cart in southern Ireland.

due to the abundant rainfall. Low mountains extend around the border of Ireland, but much of the interior is so low and flat that water does not drain off readily. On this account there are many marshes known as hogs.

Until they are drained, the bogs cannot be used for agriculture, but they furnish large quantities

Photo, by Howell.

Fig. 13. — Cathedral at Queeiistown, Ireland.

THE BBtTISS ISLES 27

of a substance called peat. This is formed bj the accumulation of vegetable material in the bogs. The water prevents the decay of the vegetation, which forms a sort of spongy mass. This is dug out in blocks, dried, and used as fuel. As there is little coal in Ireland, the peat is of great value to the people.

Cities and towns are not numerous in Ireland as they are in England. Where the land is not too swampy it is devoted to farming and to stock raising. Cattle, sheep, and horses are raised in great numbers, and meat and dairy products are exported. Oats, barley, potatoes, and flax are important crops. Much flax is grown in the country around Belfast, and linen goods of all kinds are manufactured extensively in that city. Some of these goods are exported to our country.

Great numbers of Irish people have made their homes in the United States. They have helped to build our cities and develop our country. This gives us a particular interest in the Emerald Isle.

Chapter III The Metropolis Of The World

The Hudson is a small, but a very important river. At its mouth is situated the largest city in the New World. Here may be seen ships from all parts of the earth, loading and unloading goods. A very large part of our commerce passes through New York — for, as you have learned, the Hudson- Mohawk Yalley is the easiest route from the Atlantic Coastal Plain to the interior of the United States.

The Thames, also, is a small river, but near its mouth is situated London, the metropolis of the world. In this one city there are as many people as there are in the United States west of the Rocky Mountains. About a half million people, whose homes are outside of London, enter and leave the city daily. This has made it necessary to have excellent means of transportation between London and near-by cities and towns.

The basin of the Thames is the best agricultural district in England, for here we find the largest plain. The climate is mild, there is enough rainfall, and

THE METROPOLIS OF TEE WORLD the soil is fertile. This basin furnishes much food to the people of London.

The mouth of the Thames is close to the mainland of Europe, and therefore the river and the

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London Bridge.

valley have for many centuries been an important route of travel. Long ago there were extensive marshes along the lower course of the stream, and people traveling up the valley by land could not cross the river until they reached the spot where London now stands. The settlement established at this fording place has become the largest city on earth. The Thames, which is here 900 feet wide, is now crossed by about twenty bridges. The most famous of these is the London Bridge, and there is only one. Tower Bridge, that is nearer the sea. Over these bridges a stream of people and vehicles of all kinds pour both night and day.