The seaman's friend; containing a treatise on practical seamanship

Front matter

*bv"

V

THE

CHAP. III. — Fitting and reeving Running Rigging, 26 — 29

To reeve a brace, 26. Fore, main, and cross-jack braces, 26. Fore and main tojDsail braces, 26. Mizzen topsail braces, 27. Fore, main, and mizzen topgallant and royal braces, 27. Halyards, 27. Spanker brails, 28. Tacks, sheets, and clewlines, 28. Reef-tacKles, clewgarnets, buntlines, leechlines, bowlines, and slablines, 29.

CHAP. IV.— To RIG Masts and Yards, 30—36

Taking in lower masts and bowsprit, 30. To rig a bowsprit, 31. To get the tops over the mast-heads, 31. To send up a topmast, 31. To get on a topmast cap, 32. To rig out a jib-boom, 32. To cross a lower yard, 33. To cross a topsail yard, 33. To send up a topgallant mast, 34. Long, short, and stump topgallant masts, 34. To rig out a flying jib-boom, 34. To cross a topgallant yard, 35. To cross a royal yard, 35. Sky sail yards, 35.

CHAP. V. — To SEND down Masts and Yards, 36—38

To send down a royal yard, 36. To send down a topgallant yard, 37. To send down a topgallant mast, 37. To house a topgallant mast, 37. To send down a topmast, 37. To rig in a jib-boom, 38.

CHAP. VI.— Bending and unbending Sails, 38—42

To bend a course, 38. To bend a topsail by the halyards, 39 ; — b\' the buntlines, 40. To bend topgallant sails anA royals, 40. To bend a jib, 40. To bend a spanker, 41. To bend' a spencer, 41. To unbend a course, 41. To unbend a topsail, 41.

CONTENTS. V

To unbend a topgallant sail or royal, 41 . To unljend a jib, 4 1 . To send down a topsail or course in a gale of wind, 42. ^ To bend a topsail in a gale of wind, 42. To bend one topsail or course and send down the other at the same time, 42.

CHAP. VII. — Work upon Rigging. Rope, Knots, Splices, Bends, Hitches, 43—53

Yarns, strands, 43. Kinds of rope — cable-laid, hawser-laid, 43. Spunyarn, 44. Worming, parceliing, and service, 44. Short splice, 44. Long splice, 45. Eye splice, 45. Flemish eye, 45. Artificial eye, 46. Cut splice, 46. Grommet, 46. Single and double walls, 46. Matthew Walker, 47. Single and double diamonds, 47. Spritsail sheet knot, 47. Stopper knot, 47 Shroud and French shroud knots, 48. Buoy-rope knot, 48. Turk's head, 48. Two half-hitches, clove 'hitch, overhand knot, and figure-of-eight, 48. Standing and running bowlines, and bowline upon a bight, 49. Square knot, 49. Timber hitch, rolling hitch, and blackwall hitch, 49. Cat's paw, 50. Sheet bend, fisherman's bend, carrick bend, and bowline bend, 50. Sheep-shank, 50. Selvagee, 50. Marlinspike hitch, 50. To pass a round seizing, 51. Throat seizing, 51. Stopping and nippering, 51. Pointing, 51. Snaking and grafting, 52. Foxes, Spanish foxes, sennit, French sennit, gaskets, 52. To bend a buoy-rope, 52. To pass a shear-lashing, 52.

CHAP. VIII. — Blocks and Purchases, 53 — 55

Parts of a Idock, made and morticed blocks, 53. Bull's-eye, dead-eye, sister-block, 53. Snatch-block, tail-blocks, 54. Tackles — whip, gun-tackle, luff-tackle, luflf-upon-luff', runner-tackle, watch-tackle, tail-tackle, and burtons, 54.

CHAP. IX. — Making and taking in Sail, 55 — 67

To loose a sail, 55. To set a course, 55. To set a topsail, 56. To set a topgallant sail or royal, 56. To set a skysail, 56. To set a jib, flying jib, or fore topmast staysail, 56. To set a spanker, 57. To set a spencer, 57. To take in a course, 57. To take in a topsail, 57. To take in a topgallant sail or royal, 58. To take in a skysail, 58. To take in a jib, 58. To take in a spanker, 58. To furl a royal, 59. To furl a topgallant sail, 60. To furl a topsail or course, 60. To furl a jib, 60. To stow a jib in cloth, 61. To reef a topsail. 61. To reef a course, 62. To turn out reefs, 63. To set a topgallant studdingsail, 63. To take in a topgallant studdingsail. 64. To set a topmast studdingsail, 65. To take in a topmast studdingsail, eij. To set a lower studdingsail, 66. To take in a lower studdingsail, 67.

CHAP. X. — General Principles of \vorking a Ship, 68 — 71

Action of the water upon the rudder; headway, stern way, CS. Action of the wind upon the sails ; head sails' after sails, 69. Centre of gravity or rotation, 70. Turning a ship to or from the wind, 70.

OHAP. XI. — Tacking, Wearing, ]>oxing, &c., 71 — 77.

To tack a ship, 71 . To tack without foro-rf?aching, 73. Tacking against a heavy head sea. 73. Tacking by hauling off all,

73. To trim the yards when close-hauled, 73. Missing stays,

74. Wearing, 74. To wear imdor courses, under a mainsail under bare poles, 75. I'ox-haulins:, 75. Sliort-rouml, 7C.

1*

VI

CONTENTS.

Club-hauling, 76. Drifting in a tide way, 76. Backing and filling in a tide-way, 77. Clubbing in a tide-way, 77.

Gretting ready for port, 87. Mooring, 88. A flying moor, 89. Clearing hawse, 89. To anchor with a slip-rope, 89. To slip a cable, 90. Coming-to at a slipped cable, 90.

CHAP. XVI.— Getting under Way, 91—95

Unmoor, 91 . To get under way from a single anchor, 91 . To cat and fish an anchor, 92. To get under way with the wind blowing directly out and riding head to it, 92. To get under way, riding head to the wind, with a rock or shoal close astern, 93. To get under way riding head to wind and tide, and to stand out close-hauled, 93. To get under way wind-rode, with a weather tide, 94. To get under way tide-rode, casting to windward, 94, To get under way tide-rode, wearing round, 94.

A DICTIONARY OF SEA TERMS, 96—130.

CHAP. I.— The Master, 131—138

Beginning of the voyage, 131. Shipping the crew, 132. Outfit, provisions, 132. Watches, 133. Navigation, 134. Log-book, observations, 134. Working ship, 135. Day's work, 136. Discipline, 137.

CHAP. II.— The Chief Mate, 138—146

Care of rigging and ship's furniture, 13S. Day's work, 139. Working ship, 139. Getting under way, 139. Coming to anchor, 140. Reefing and furling, 140. Duties in port, account of cargo, stowage, 141. Station, watch, and all-hands duties, 142. Log-book, navigation, 14^.

CONTENTS. VU

CHAP. III.— Second and Third Mates, 146—153

Second Mate. — Navigation, 146. Station ; watch duties, 147. Day's work, 147, 149. Working ship, 148, 150. Reefing, furling, and duties aloft, 148. Care of ship's furniture, 151. Stores, 151. Duties in port, 152. Third Mate, 152, 153.

CHAP. IV.— Carpenter, Cook, Steward, &c., 153—158

Carpenter. — Working ship, 153. Seaman's work, helm, duty aloft, station, 154. Work at his trade, 154. Berth and mess, 154. Standing watch, 154. Sailmaker 155. Steward. — Duty in passenger-ships, 156. In other vessels, 156. Relation to master and mate ; duty aloft and about decks ; working ship, 156. Cook. — Berth, watch and all-hands duty ; care of galley; duty aloft, 157. Idlers, 157.

CHAP. I.— The Vessel, pages 175—179

Title, 175. Registry, enrolment and license, 175. Certificate of registry or enrolment, 177. Passport, 177. Sea letter, list of crew, bill of health, clearance, manifest, invoice, bill of lading, charter-party, log-book, list of passengers and crew, list of sea-stores, 178. Medicine-chest, 173. National character of crew, 178. Provisions, 178. Passengers, 179.

CHAP. II. — Master's relation to Vessel and Cargo, 179 — 187

Revenue duties and obligations, 179. List of crew, 179. Certified copy, 180. Certified copy of shipping articles, ISO.

VIU CONTENTS.

Sea-letter, passport, list of passengers, manifest, sea-stores, 180, 181. Unloading, 180, 181. Post-office, 181. Forfeitures, 180, 181, 182. Report, 182. Coasting license, 182. Power to sell and pledge, 182. Keeping and delivering cargo, 185. Deviation, 185. Collision, 186. Pilot, 187. Wages and advances, 187,

CHAP. VII.— Seamen. Shipping Contract, 203—205

Shipping contract, 203. Erasures and interlineations. 204. Unusual stipulations, 204. Violation of contract, 204.

"^HAP. VIII. — Seamen — continued, 206 — 208.

Rendering on board, 206. Refusal to proceed, 206. Desertion or absence during the voyage, 207. Discharge, 208.

vHAP. IX. — Seamen — continued, 209 — 212.

Provisions, 209. Sickness, medicine-chest, 210. Hospital money, 211. Relief in foreign ports, 211. Protection, 212.

^HAP. X. — Seamen— continued, 212 — 216.

Punishment. 212. Revolt and mutiny, 213. Embezzlement, 215. Piracy, 216.

:HAP. XL— Seamen's Wages, 216—222.

Wages affected by desertion or absence, 216; — by misconduct, 218; — by imprisonment, 219; — by capture, 220 ; — by loss of vessel or interruption of voyage, 220. Wages on an illegal voyage, 222.

CHAP. XIL— Seamen— CONCLUDED, 222—225.

Recovery of w-ages, 222. Remedies, 223. Time for commencing suits, 224. Interest on wages, 224. Salvage. 224.

PLATE !• THE SPARS AND RIGGING OF A SHIP.

INDEX OF REFERENCES,

1 Head.

2 Head-boards.

3 Stem.

4 Bows.

5 Forecastle.

6 Waist.

7 Quarter-deck.

8 Gangway.

9 Counter.

10 Stern.

11 Tafferel.

12 Fore chains.

13 Main ciiains.

14 Mizzen chains.

15 Bowsprit.

16 Jib-boom.

17 Flying jib-boom.

18 Spritsail yard.

19 Martingale.

20 Bowsprit cap.

21 Foremast.

22 Fore topmast.

23 Fore topgallant mast.

24 Fore royal mast.

25 Fore skysail mast.

26 Main roast.

27 Main topmast.

23 Main topgallant mast.

29 Main royal mast.

30 Main skysail mast.

31 Mizzen mast. .32 W\zzen topmast.

33 Mizzen topgallant mast. 31 Mizzen royal mast. .35 Mizzen skysail mast.

36 Fore spencer gaff.

37 Main spencer gaff. as Spanker gaff.

39 Spanker boom.

40 Fore top.

41 Foremast cap,

42 Fore topmast cross-trees

43 Main top.

44 Mainmast cap.

45 Main topmast cross-

trees.

46 Mizzen top.

47 Mizzenmast cap.

48 Mizzen topmast cross-trees.

49 Fore yard.

50 Fore topsail yard.

51 Fore topgallant yard.

52 Fore royal yard.

53 Main yard.

54 Main topsail yard.

55 Main topgallant yard.

56 Main royal yard.

57 Cross-jack yard.

58 Mizzen topsail yard.

59 Mizzen topgallant yard.

60 Mizzen royal yard.

61 Fore truck.

62 Main truck.

63 Mizzen truck.

64 Fore stay.

65 Fore topmast stay.

66 Jib stay.

67 Fore topgallant stay.

70 Fore skysail stay.

71 Jib guys.

72 Flying-jib guys.

73 Fore lifts.

74 Fore braces.

75 Fore topsail lifts.

76 Fore topsail braces.

77 Fore topgallant lifts.

78 Fore topgallant braces.

79 Fore royal lifts.

80 Fore royal braces.

81 Fore rigging.

82 Fore topmast rigging.

83 Fore topgallant shrouds.

84 Fore topmast backstays.

85 Fore topgallant backstays.

86 Fore royal backstays.

87 Main stav.

88 Main topmast stay.

89 Main topgallant slay.

90 Main royal slay.

91 Main lifts.

68 Flying-jib stay.

69 Fore rojal stay.

Main braces.

Main topsail lifts.

Main topsail braces.

Main topgallant lifts.

Main topgallant braces.

Main royal lifts.

Main royal braces.

Main rigging.

Main topmast rigging.

Main topgallant rigging. : Main topmast backstays.

Main topgallant backstays.

Main royal backstays.

Cross-jack lifts.

Cross-jack braces.

Mizzen topsail lifts.

Mizzen topsail braces.

Mizzen topgallant lifls.

Mizzen lopgal't braces.

Mizzen royal lifts, i Mizzen royal braces.

Mizzen stay.

Mizzen topmast stay.

Mizzen topgallant stay.

Mizzen royal stay.

Mizzen skysail stay.

Mizzen rigging.

Mizzen topmast rigging.

Mizzen topgal.shrouda

Mizzen topmast backstays. ; Mizzen topgal'nt backstays.

Mizzen royal backstays.

Fore spencer vangs.

Main spencer vangs. i Spanker vangs.

Ensign halyards.

Spanker peak halyards.

Foot-rope to fore yard.

I Foot-rope to main yard

Fool-rope to cross- jack

yard.

PLATE II.

A SHIP'S SAILS.

IKDEX or REFERENCES.

1 Fore topmast staysail.

2 Jib.

3 Fljringjib.

4 Fore spencer.

5 Main spencer.

6 Spanker.

7 Foresail.

8 Fore topsail.

9 Fore topgallant sail.

10 Fore royal.

11 Fore skysail.

12 Mainsail.

13 Main topsail.

14 Main topgallant sail.

15 Main royal.

1 6 Main skysail.

17 Mizzen topsail.

18 Mizzen topgallant sail.

19 Mizzen royal.

20 Mizzen skysail.

21 Lower studdingsail. 21a Lee ditto.

22 Fore topmast studdingsail. 22a Lee ditto.

23 Fore topgallant studdingsail. 23a Lee ditto.

24 Fore royal studdingsail. 24a Lee ditto.

25 Main topmast studdingsail. 25a Lee ditto.

26 Main topgallant studdingsail. 26a Lee ditto.

27 Main royal studdingsail. 27a Lee ditto.

PLATE III.

THE FRAME OP A SHIP.

INDEX OF BEFERENCE8.

A. The Outside.

1 Upper stem-piece.

2 Lower stem-piece.

3 Gripe.

4 Forward keel-piece.

5 Middle keel-piece.

6 After keel-piece.

7 False keel.

8 Stem knee.

9 Stern-post.

10 Rudder.

1 1 Bilge streaks.

12 First streak under the wales.

13 Apron.

14 Lower apron.

15 Pore frame.

16 After frame.

17 Wales.

18 Waist.

19 Plank -shear.

20 Timber-heads.

21 Stanchions.

22 Rail.

23 Knight-heads.

24 Cathead.

25 Fashion timbers.

26 Transoms.

27 Quarter pieces.

B. The Inside of the Stern.

1 Keelson.

2 Pointers.

3 Chock.

4 Transoms.

5 Half transoms.

6 Main transom.

7 Quarter timbers.

8 Transom knees.

9 Horn timbers.

10 Counter- timber knee.

11 Stern-post.

12 Rudder-head.

13 Counter tmibers.

14 Upper- deck clamp.

C. The Inside of the Bowft

1 Keelson.

2 Pointers.

3 Step for the mast.

4 Breast-hook.

5 Lower-deck breast-hook.

6 Forward beam.

7 Upper-deck clamp.

8 Knight-heads.

9 Hawse timbers.

10 Bow timbers.

1 1 Apron of the stem.

D. The Timbers.

1 Keelson.

2 Floor timbers.

3 Naval timbers or ground futtocks.

4 Lower futtocks.

5 Middle futtocks.

6 Upper futtocks.

7 Top timbers.

8 Half timbers, or half top-timbers.

PLATE IV.

EXPLANATIONS.

Ship. — A ship is square-rigged throughout ; that is, she has tops, and carries square sails on all three of her masts.

Bark. — A bark is square-rigged at her fore and main masts, and differs from a ship in having no top, and carrying only fore-and-aft sails at her mizzenmast.

Brig. — A full-rigged brig is square-rigged at both her masts.

Hermaphrodite Brig. — An hermaphrodite brig is square-rigged at her foremast ; but has no top, and only fore-and aft sails at her main mast.

Topsail Schooner. ^ — A topsail schooner has no tops at her foremast, and is fore-and-aft rigged at her mainmast. She differs from an hermaphrodite brig in that she is not properly square-rigged at hei foremast, having no top, and carrying a fore-and-aft foresail, in stead of a square foresail and a spencer.

Fore-and-aft Schooner. — A fore-and-aft schooner is fore-and-aft rigged throughout, differing from a topsail schooner in that the latter carries small square sails aloft at the fore.

Sloop. — A sloop has one mast, fore-and-aft rigged.

Hermaphrodite Brigs sometimes carry small square sails aloft at the main ; in which case they are called Brigantines, and differ from a Full-rigged Brig in that they have no top at the mainmast, and carry a fore-and-aft mainsail instead of a square mainsail and trysail. Some Topsail Schooners carry small square sails aloft at the main as well as the fore ; being in other respects fore-and-aft rigged. They are then called Main Topsail Schooners.

f{ h r^

'^rfW~

Chapter I. General Rules And Observations

Construction of vessels. Tonnage and carriage of merchant vessels. Proportions of the spars. Placing the masts. Size of anchors and cables. Lead-lines. Log-line. Ballast and lading.

Construction of Vessels. — As merchant vessels of the larger class are now built in the United States, the extreme length of deck, from the after part of the stern-post to the fore ])art of the -stem, is from four and a half to four and three fourths that of the beam, at its widest part. The Damascus, of 700 tons' measurement, built at Boston in 1S39, and considered a fair specimen of our best freightmg vessels, had 150 feet from stem to stern-post, and 32 feet 6 inches extreme breadth. The Rajah, of 530 tons, built at Boston in 1837, had 140 feet length, and 30 feet beam ; — being each in length about four and six tenths their beam.

A great contrast to this proportion is exhibited in the most recent statistics (1841) of vessels of the same tonnage in the English navy ; as the following table will show.

English

Navy.

American

IMerchaut-

inen.

These may, perhaps, be considorod the extronios of ship-building; and between these there is every grade of diilVrcnce.

Tons.

Deck.

Beam.

Proportion.

Dido

37 ft. 6 in

. 3.20

Pilot

33 6

3.13

Alert

30 4

3.16

Damascus

32 6

4.60

Rajah

4.66

14 TONNAGE AND CARRIAGE.

Tonnage and Carriage of Merchant Vessels. — The amount a vessel will carry in proportion to her tonnage, depends upon whether, and to what extent, she is full or sharp built. A sharp-built vessel of 300 tons' measurement, will carry just about her tonnage of measurement goods. A sharp-built vessel of 200 tons or under would probably carry less than her measurement ; if over 400 tons, she would increase gradually to fifty per cent, above her measurement. A sharp-built vessel of 600 tons, is generally rated at 900 tons carriage. A full-built vessel of 300 tons, after the latest model of American freighting vessels, will carry 525 tons, or seventy-five per cent, above her measurement ; and one of 500 tons would carry full «.louble her measurem.ent.

The following table may give a pretty fair average.

TONS OF measurement GOODS.

Tonnage.

Full buih.

Sharp buili.

(.75) 525

(.00) 300

(.80) 725

(.40) 560

(1.00) 1000

(.50) 750

(1.33) 1400

(.50) 900

Proportions of Spars. — There is no particular rule for sparring merchant vessels; some being light, and others heavy sparred ; and some having long topmasts and short lower masts, and others the reverse. The prevailing custom now is, to spar them lightly ; the main yard being a little less than double the beam ; and the others proportioned by the main. Most merchant vessels now have the yards at the fore and main of the same size, for convenience in shifting sails ; so that tlie same topsail may be bent on either yard.

The following table, taken from the " Seamen's Manual," '^all show the average proportions of the spars of merchant vessels of the largest class, as formerly built.

Main-mast, two and a half times the ship's beam.

Fore-mast, eight ninths of the main-mast.

Mizzen-mast, five sixths of the main-mast.

Bowsprit, two thirds of the main-mast.

Topmasts, three fifths of the lower masts.

PROrORTIOrs^S OF SPAES. 15

Topgallant masts, one half the length of their topmasts.

Jib-boom, the length of the bowsprit.

Main-yard, twice the beam.

Fore-yard, seven eighths of the main-yard.

Maintopsail-yard, two thirds of the main-yard.

Foretopsail-yard, two thirds of the fore-yard.

Crossjack-yard, the length of the maintopsail-yard.

Topgallant-yards, two thirds of the topsail-yards.

Mizzentopsail-yard, the length of the maintopgallant-yard.

Royal-yards, two thirds of the topgallant-yards.

Spritsail-yard, five sixths of the foretopsail-yard.

Spanker-boom, the length of the maintopsail-yard.

Spanker-gaff, two thirds of the boom.

For the thickness of ihe spars, the same book allov/s for the lower masts one inch and a quarter diameter at the partners, for every three feet of length ; and nine tenths in the middle and two thirds under the hounds, for every inch at the partners. For the yards, one inch at the slings, and half an inch at the yard-arms, within the squares, for every four feet of the length. For the breadth of the maintop, one half of the beam, and of the foretop, eight ninths of the maintop.

The following are the proportions of the spars of the ship Damascus, before mentioned, built in 1839.

Main-mast 74 ft. Head 11 ft. 6 in. Size 26 in.

Fore-mast 70 ft. " lift. Gin. " 25 in.

Mizzen-mast 68 ft. " 8 ft. 6 in. " IS in.

Main and fore topmasts 41 ft. " 6 ft. 6 in. " 14Hn.

Mizzen topmast 32ft. " 5ft. " Oiin.

Main topgallant-mast 23 ft. (15 ft. with 2 feet head.) 9^ in.

Fore topgallant-mast 21 ft. 14 ft. " 2 " " " 9] in.

Mizzen topgallant-mast 17 ft. lift. " IS in. "

Main and fore yards 60ft. yard-arms 2 ft. 6 in.

Main and fore topsail yards 4S ft. " " 3 ft. 6 in.

Main topgallant yard 37 ft. " " 2 ft.

Fore topgallant " 34 ft. " " 2 ft.

Main royal " 27 ft. " " 1 fl. 6 in.

Fore royal " 24 ft. " " 1 ft. 6 in.

Main skysail " 17 ft.

Fore skysail " 15ft.

:rj

} /^LACING

MASTS.—

-ANCHORS AND

CABLES.

6f OSS-jack yard

44 ft. yard-arms 2 ft.

Mizzen topsail u

Mizzen topgallant "

Mizzen royal u

Mizzen skysail

Bowsprit, out-board 27 ft.

Size 26 in.

Jib-boom

Head 3 ft.

Flying jib-boom in.

Main pole

10 above royai-mast, 5 in. in

Fore pole lift.

9 " "

Mizzen pole

J it a u

Spanker-boom

Spanker-gaff

Swinging-booms

Topmast studdingsail-booms 34 ft.

Topgallant studdingsail-booms 27 ft., yards for do. 17 ft

Placing the Masts. — For a full-built ship, take the ship's extreme length and divide it into sevenths. Place the foremast one seventh of this length from the stem ; the mainmast three sevenths from the foremast, and the mizzenmast two sevenths from the mainmast. If a vessel is sharp-built, and her stem and stern-post rake, her foremast should be further aft, and her mizzenmast further forward, than the rule of sevenths would give. A common rule for placing the foremast, is to deduct three fifths of a ship's beam from her length, for the curvature of the keel forward, which is called the keel-strolie, and place the mast next abaft the keel-stroke.

Size of Anchors and Cables. — Various rules have been adopted for the weight of a ship's anchors. A vessel of 100 tons will generally have a best bower of 6 cwt. and a small bower of 5 cwt. ; the weight of both being eleven pounds to a ton of the vessel. As a vessel increases in size, the proportion diminishes. A vessel of 700 tons will usually carry a best bower of 27 cwt. and a small bower of 24 cwt. : the weight of both being seven and a half pounds to a ton of the vessel. The stream should be a little more than one third the weight of the best bower. The anchor-stock should be the length of the shank ; its diameter should be half that of the ring, and its thickness one inch at the middle and half an

LEAD-LINES. — LOG -LINE. 17

inch at each end for every foot in length. Chain cahles are usually ninety fathoms in length, for large-sized vessels, and sixty for small vessels, as schooners and sloops. The regulation of the United States Navy for chain cahles, is one inch and a half for a sloop of v^ar, and one and a quarter for brigs and schooners. In the merchant service, a ship of 400 tons would probably have a best bower cable of one and five sixths, and a working bower of one and a quarter inches. A ship of 700 tons would have a best bower of one and five eighths, and a working bower of one and a half inches. Chain cables have a shackle at every fifteen fathoms, and one swivel at the first shackle. Some have two swivels; and formerly they were made with a swivel between each shackle.

Lead-lines. — The hand-lead weighs usually seven pounds, and the hand-line is from twenty to thirty fathoms in length. The deep-sea-lead (pro. dipsey) weighs from fourteen to eighteen or twenty pounds ; and the deep-sea-line is from ninety to one hundred and ten fathoms. The proper way to mark ':: hand-line is, black leather at 2 and 3 fathoms; white rag a. 5 ; red rag at 7 ; wide strip of leather, wdth a hole in it, at 10 ; and 13, 15 and 17 marked like 3, 5 and 7 ; two knots at 20 ; 3 at 30 ; and 4 at 40 ; with single pieces of cord at 25 and 35.

The deep-sea-line has one knot at 20 fiithoms, and an additional knot at every 10 fathoms, with single knots at each intermediate 5 fathoms. It sometimes has a strip of leather at 10 fathoms, and from 3 to 10 is marked like the hand-line.

Log-line. — The rate of a ship's sailing is measured by a log-line and a half-minute glass. The line is marked Avith a knot for each mile ; the real distance between each knot bein«i, however, yi^ of a mile, since a half-minute is j^^ of an hour. A knot being thus the same portion of a mile that a half-minute is of an hour, the number of knots carried oif Avhile the glass is running out will show the number o'l miles the vessel goes in an hour. Many glasses^ b.owcver, are made lor twenty-eight seconds, which, of course, reduces the number of feet for a knot to forty-seven and six tenths. Hut as the Hue is liable to stretch and the glass to be aliectod l;y t!ie weatlier, in order to avoid all danger of a vessel's ovrrranuir.g \\^t 2^

18 BALLAST AND LADING.

reckoning, and to be on the safe side, it is recommended to mark forty-five feet to a knot for a twenty-eight second glass. About ten fathoms is left unmarked next the chip, called stray-line. The object of this is that the chip may get out of the eddy under the stern, before the measuring begins. The end of the stray-line is marked by a white rag, and the first knot is forty-five or forty-seven feet from the rag. A single piece of cord or twine is put into the line for the first knot, one knot for the second, two for the fourth, three for the sixth, and so on, a single piece of cord being put in at the intermediate knots.

Ballast and Lading. — A ship's behavior, as the phrase is, depends as much upon the manner in which she is loaded and ballasted, as upon her model. It is said that a vessel may be prevented from rolling heavily, if, when the ballast is iron, it is stowed up to the floor-heads ; because this will bring the ship back, after she has inclined, with less violence, and Yvrill act upon a point but little distant from the centre of gravity, and not interfere with her stiff carrying of sail. The cargo should be stowed with the weightier materials as near as possible to the centre of gravity, and high or low, according to the build of the vessel. If the vessel is full and low built, the heavy articles should be stowed high up, that the centre of gravity may be raised and the vessel kept from rolling too much, and from being too laborsome. But a narrow, highbuilt vessel should have the heavy articles stowed low and near the keelson, which will tend to keep her from bemg crank, and enable her to carry sail to more advantage.

Chapter II. Cutting And Fitting Standing Rigging

Measuring and cutting lower rigging and lower fore-and-aft stays. Fitting the same. Measuring, cutting, and fitting topmast rigging, stays, and backstays. Jib, topgallant, and royal stays. Rattling down rigging. Cutting and fitting lifts, foot-ropes, brace-block straps, and pennants. Breast-backstays.

Cutting lower Prigging. — Draw a line from the side of the partners abreast of the mast, on the deck, parallel to the channels, and to extend as far aft as they do. On this line mark the places of each dead-eye, corresponding to their places against the channels. Send a line up to the mast-head, and fasten it to the mast by a nail above the bibbs, in a range with the centre of the mast, and opposite to the side the channel line is drawn upon. Then take the bight of the line around the forward part of the mast, and fasten it to the mast by a nai], opposite the first nail, so that the part between the nails will be half the circumference of the mast-head ; then take the line down to the mark on the channel line for the forward dead-eye, and mark it as before ; and so on, until you have got the distance between the mast and each mark on the channel line. Now cast off the line from the masthead, and the distance between the end of the line and each mark will give you the length of each shroud from the lower part of the mast-head. And, to make an allowance for one pair of shrouds overlaying another, you may increase the length of the pair put on second, that is, the larboard forward ones, by twice the diameter of the rigging; the third pair by four times ; and so on.

The size of the lower rigging should be as much as eight and a half inches for vessels of seven or eight hundred tons, and from seven and a half to eight for smaller vessels, over three hundred tons.

For the length of the fore, main, and niizzen stays and

20" CUTTING AND FITTINQ RIGGING.

spring-Stays, take the distance from the after part of the masthead to their hearts, or to the place where they are set up, adding once the length of the mast-head for the collar.

The standing stays should be once and half the circumference of the shrouds.

Fitting lower Rigging. — Get it on a stretch, and divide each pair of shrouds into thirds, and mark the centre of the middle third. Tar, worm, parcel and serve the middle third. Parcel with the lay of the rope, working toward the centre ; and serve against the lay, beginning where you left off parcelling. Serve as taut as possible. In some vessels the outer thirds of the swifters are served ; but matting and battens are neater and more generally used.

Formerly the middle third was parcelled over the service, below the wake of the futtock staff. Mark an eye at the centre of the middle third, by seizing the parts together with a round seizing. The eye of the pair of shrouds that goes on first should be once and a quarter the circumference of the mast-head ; and make each of the others in succession the breadth of a seizing larger than the one below it. Parcel the score of the dead-eye, and heave the shroud taut round it, turning in with the sun, if right-hand-laid rope, and against ihe sun, if hawser-laid ; then pass the throat seizing with nine or ten turns, the outer turns being slacker than the middle ones. Pass the quarter seizings half w^ay to the end, and then the end seizings, and cap the shroud, well tarred under the cap. Make a Matthew Walker knot in one end of the lanyard, reeve the other end out through the dead-eye of the shroud, beginning at the side of the dead-eye upon which the end of the shroud comes, and in through the dead-eye in the channels, so that the hauling part of the lanyard may come in-board and on the same side with the standing part of the shroud. If the shroud is right-hand-laid rope, the standing part of the shroud will be aft on the starboard, and forward on the larboard side ; and the reverse, if hawser-laid.