Education

Foreword

The author being an enthusiastic advocate of Education for the Masses in all that pertains directly to qualification for good citizenship, desires to promote the interests of the Elementary and the Secondary Schools; and shall regard this little book worth all the effort which it has cost should it prove a stimulus to teachers in their work in these schools.

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I

Introductory

Punishments

Contents

Chapter XXI Chapter XXII

Chapter XXIII

Chapter XXIV Chapter XXV

CHAPTER I. Introductory

The proper training of the citizens and youth of our country is of such importance and has such immense possibiUties that not only the teachers of our pubHc schools should study educational works but also those who direct, and so control any part of our educational system. The latter class, that is the [school officers and committee men regarding works on pedagogy as mere helps for the inexperienced teacher, sometimes think it beneath them to study such works. They fear perhaps that to keep them in their private libraries might lower their dignity or weaken their influence as professional men.

Their duty is to so qualify themselves that they can inteUigently use their influence toward rendering our elementary schools more efficient. Indeed, all professional men and women everywhere should not only take an interest in but also apply themselves to the study of pedagogy and its related sciences.

The investigation of the interests involved in the management of our common schools is not limited to the foregoing classes. But as by far the larger number of the children are educated in schools supported by the taxpayers and conducted under the control of laws enacted by our legislative bodies it becomes the duty of every good citizen, of every voter, to examine carefully the educational works which are intended particularly for the instruction of inexperienced teachers. By the term 'educational works' is meant not only the books but also educational periodicals.

It might naturally be assumed that all fathers and all m.others would be sufficiently interested to induce them to seek diligently to learn all that could be known of child study. Is this true? Rather do they not usually look upon the training of the young as the business of the teacher and so relegate to the school much of what should belong and does belong to the province of the parents? The principles involved in the teacher's proper work are equally applicable to the parents' work. Hence the importance to parents of keeping themselves thoroughly well informed upon the subject.

Chapter II

Educational Conceptions. Historical.

China claims priority in the estabhshment of an educational system. This claim is probably correct. At least it cannot be disproved. Chinese education is historically important to modern educators because of its having changed so little through the ages. It is interesting as showing the general trend of all peoples in the early stages of the development of their systems of education. The legendary has been assumed as the groundwork for history, and upon this basis has been erected such educational systems as we now have.

With the Chinese, the principle upon which all else depended was the cultivation of conventional etiquette; especially a certain formal respect of sons for their fathers. This finally developed into the ancestor worship of the present day. The Egyptians too adopted similar ideas. For the purpose, most likely, of perpetuating the memory of their fathers and of their kings, more especially, architecture of a substantial style was developed through the planning and erection of monuments, some of which are still in a good state of preservation. The Chinese were probably interested also in architecture but built as they now build in a less durable style. The Greek architecture, so famous for its graceful lines and for having pressed into its service the noble art of sculpture, was in its earliest stages the outgrowth of the Egyptian, through the Phoenicians. It is generally believed that not only these branches of art but also other aesthetic culture was introduced in this indirect manner.

At the time of the migration of the Phoenicians, however, Egypt cannot claim that she had anything worthy of being called literature, as the oldest inscriptions consist almost exclusively of crude drawings of objects, principally animals with which the people were familiar. These hieroglyphics served either directly or as symbols to record events, until their ingenuity developed these signs into a system which could be called an alphabet.

During the four hundred years of the captivity of the Israelites, they had learned something of Egyptian civilization, for Moses had been educated in all the learning of the priests, the magicians, and the soothsayers, who were regarded as the "Wise Men" of the nation.

The Egyptians originated the first systematic alphabet intended to be on a phonetic basis. The Greeks improved the alphabet and developed a superior literature much of which has been incorporated into the warp and woof of our higher education of modern times. Of the two branches of the ancient Greeks, the Athenians have contributed much the larger part to modern civilization. They developed philosophy and the fine arts while the Spartans cultivated their physical well being and their martial proclivities.

Rome, through her emulation of the 'Greeks, resolved by Spartan courage and Athenian philosophy to become mistress of the world. Her ambition was turned to good account. It resulted in the extension of Greek culture which received further development.

After Rome had reached the goal of her ambition, however, Christianity modified her advancement in letters. On account of the decadence of her dominance as a nation, monasticism assumed control of the literature of the period with the purpose in view of promoting piety. Then came the Renaissance during which period the Classics were developed.

In our modern times more of the practical, more of the utilitarian, is in demand. Hence our conception of a system of education is that it should develop the human powers both intellectually and physically so that through the character forming process it should be conducive to good citizenship.

"It is easy to find fault," is a very clearly enunciated proverb. Hence, as might have been expected, many of our best writers have called attention to the faults of the educational systems prevalent

O V at the time of their writing. This showing has been followed by helpful suggestions of better methods for training the young. As the method of treating the subject has the merit of having caused great changes in the educational processes which are universally acknowledged to have been improvements upon ancient and now obsolete methods, it is fair to presume that much may still be done to give greater efficiency to education.

CHAPTER III. More Modern Conceptions

A pendulum dropped from the extreme limit of its arc does not stop at the lowest point because it has gained sufficient momentum to send it upward until it reaches almost the height of the point from whence it was dropped. So it has been, in some cases, when educational reforms have been introduced. Supposed reforms become "all the rage" among some teachers for a time. Teachers vie with one another in endeavoring to ''keep abreast of the times" until some of them reach the opposite extreme. The next reaction is to tone down to a sensible mean.

The "Schoolmaster" of our forefathers

**kept school" from eight to ten hours a day, teaching each individual pupil without grade or class. This method of "keeping school all the day long" was found to be impracticable and even damaging on account of the confinement of the children for so long a time each day.

Then it was found that the same teaching might be given to a class of the same or nearly equal attainments in the same time that it had been given to each one separately. So classes and grades were established.

Then the period of the daily session was gradually shortened and has continued to be shortened until in many places the school day now lasts from 9 A. M. to 3 P. M. only, one hour being taken from this time for noon lunch.

The number in each class has been increased from time to time until it has 37 reached forty to fifty in a class. It is to be hoped that the pendulum will shorten its arc.

We now have the grades subdivided, which is a great improvement over "the iron bedstead" method into which we had drifted. This method of grading and promoting, (now happily in the past in most schools,) was to continue the pupil in the same grade for one year. Then if upon formal examination the pupil ''passed" in every study, he entered the grade next above the one from which he had passed. If not passed he must remain in the same grade another year. At the present time fortunately examinations and promotions are more frequent, the proficiency of the pupil in the daily recitation being a prominent feature of qualification for promotion.

The subdivision of grades places pupils more nearly of equal capacity in the same class. This is a very important matter so far as the advancement of the pupil is concerned.

Under the old regime, (the extreme limit of the swing of the pendulum,) the writer has observed, in some cases, that but two or three members of a class of forty or fifty, recited well while the remainder were inattentive. It may be assum^ed that this was the fault of the teacher; but she had so much more work planned and apportioned to her by "the higher powers" that she seemed driven to this method as a necessity. Be this as it may, the fact remains, for it still remains in some localities, that these listless members of a class lose all interest in the subject under consideration and soon become incapacitated for further study. When the basis upon which depends the acquisition of future presentations of the branch pursued fails to be understood, further progress becomes impossible.

There is a hopeful growing public opinion that means should be provided for the teacher to give more personal care to individual pupils than is now given in the several grades. Coaching by teachers employed for this purpose only, has been proposed, but this seems objectionable because of the diflPerence both in personality and in the methods of instruction which would be found to exist between the "coach" and the class instructor. A teacher should study each individual member of a class in order to be successful. To do this the same teacher must have the pupil under care both during the period of recitation and through the study hour, and be accessible, at the proper time, to allow the pupil the privilege of asking questions. This demand for more individual attention to pupils must he met and granted in the near future, even if double the number of teachers are employed. Then will the dishonest cramming for examinations be abolished; then the honest every day work of the pupil will become the test of capability and fitness for promotion instead of the too common method of special preparation for examination to which the sin of ''cribbing" has been added. By this method superficial attainments become rare, and thoroughness, the key to real advancement in study of every kind, will be promoted.

After some investigation it was discovered by the same class of educators that cruelty was being practiced by requring pupils to sit half a day at a session upon ill assorted, poorly constructed seats.

A short interval between the opening and the closing of the forenoon and the afternoon sessions was then instituted. The writer has found by carefully testing the method, that a shorter interval given every hour is much better still, both for the pupil's health and for his mental work. It is very unfortunate that in some of our large cities the rest interval except for lunch is being dropped altogether. It is found inconvenient to dismiss from a third or fourth floor of a school building; but it may yet be found, on account of danger from fires, that a third or fourth floor is not a safe place for schoolchildren. Then the recesses or times of recreation may be restored. It is said that ''history repeats itself." So with school methods. They too seem to move in cycles. It is to be most devoutly hoped that in the future as in the past they may be upward in their tendency.

CHAPTER IV. The OivD and the New

In discussing the Old and the New, while it will be conceded at once that the improvement made upon the Old has been of immense importance in both the methods of imparting instruction and of the curricula, 3^et much of the Old might have been profitably retained, as the author will attempt to show.

The mistake of our forefathers consisted principally in expecting too much of the child. (Is not this a modern fault also?) Therefore in the preparation of the course of study the material presented was far beyond the child's understanding capacity. The methods, of necessity, were adapted to the principal error. If the child failed to understand the lesson, as he almost always did, his delinquency was supposed to be on account of his stubbornness. He must get the lesson even though the teacher was convinced of his lack of capability. Then followed the memorizing of mere words, the pupil giving very little heed to the explanation, if any was made of the meaning. This is very properly termed the "Memoriter System" by Prof. Holbrook. Advancement in education was then under the compulsion or force method. Hence the popularity of the use of the rod, the ferrule and the dunce-cap in those days. Thus it may be seen that a single mistake lying at the base of a system of education is the source of many difficulties which otherwise would seem inexplicable.

The lads of unusual mental capability pulled through their tasks, some of them attaining excellence in their qualifications sufficient to fill positions of great responsibility and so to discharge their arduous duties as to leave their names inscribed on the roll of honor on the pages of history. George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, the Adamses, and many others of our countrymen might be mentioned as belonging to this class of unusually bright intellects who were doubtless capable of understanding with little trouble what seemed so difficult to the mediocre. It may be observed here that the wheels of progress in better methods of education have been somewhat clogged all along by a wrong conception of the capabilities of the average child. The writing of text books for children has usually been done by our most talented men. Who so capable as they? Yet they too often have made the mistake of measuring the capabilities of the average child by the memory of their own childhood, and so have blundered by making the ascent in the grade of the average pupil too steep. Much improvement has been apparent in this respect within the past quarter of a century.

An excellent rule to be observed in regard to the Old and the New is not to discard any part of the Old because it is old nor adopt any part of the New because it is new.

CHAPTER V. Genetic PsychoIvOgy

Much has been written upon this very important subject, psychology, and much has been taught in the normal departments of our universities, but after much investigation, the writer regards James's Talks to Teachers of more value to the beginner in the professsion of teaching than any work on psychology with which he is acquainted. The teacher needs not only the knowledge of the constitution and trend of the child's mental activities but also the proven capabilities and susceptibilities of its mental endowment, in the practical development of the same.

Garmo, and Herbert Spencer, we find little of practical value to the young teacher.

The experienced teacher finds that it is necessary to follow carefully the trend of the child's mind, adapting to the degree of its development, from time to time, the helps to generalization by questions and other devices as the child reaches its points of deduction somewhat after the Socratic method.

It is well enough to show the different stages through which the boy passes during childhood and youth; that he reaches the "Big Indian" stage at or about a certain age, etc., but it is of far greater importance to the young teacher to be instructed in regard to her duty in the training of the child during the different periods of its development. Some well educated people leaning upon certain psychological fads seem to attach a sort of fatality to a child's acts. They assume that he must pass through those psychological stages and do all those things that seem so unmanly and semi -barbarous because he must. The old method for the expression of the same idea was, "O, he is just sowing his wild oats," forgetting the wise teaching given long ago, "Whatsoever a man soweth that shall he also reap." It is vain to attempt the hairsplitting argument that the word man being used here instead of child should make this maxim inapplicable, for in childhood and youth this great principle is even more applicable as experience has proved to all observing teachers. Another ancient teacher who has always had the reputation of having been a wise man, wrote as a maxim for all mankind for all ages of the world : "Train up a child in the way he should go and when he is old he will not depart from it."

One of the "go as you please" class of readers may say: "O, he is so full of animal spirits that he must give them full play." True in a sense but he must he given training in the use of his energies or the consequences will be anything but desirable. With training, his energies may become profitable not only to him^self but also to those among whom his life is to be spent.

A beautiful meandering brook passes through a valuable meadow and, on account of its tortuous course, causes much damage to the owner. What is to be done? The answer is obvious. He has but to give it direction by making channels through which it m^ay pass harmlessly on its joyous way.

A child allowed to have its own way is like a vessel at sea without a rudder drifting toward a rock. As it grows older it becomes more determined to have its own way in all things and resents the application of the rudder. Nevertheless the old proverb remains true: ''Those who will not be ruled by the rudder will be ruled by the rock."

It is universally agreed that childhood is the period for forming habits. They are formed at this time whether bad or good. If bad habits are allowed, or, what is the same thing, are treated with indifference and as of no consequence, they become irrevocably fixed. The youthful liar becomes a dishonest man, the thief; hence the undesirable citizen. On the other hand, if the child is so taught that he is willing to have his mother for his confidante, being always truthful and obedient during childhood and youth,

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manly habits are formed which make him the very soul of honor. In short, his habits make him the desirable citizen of the kind which is to give stability to the Nation.

Luther Burbank says, "Culture results in growth. Education is to man what cultivation is to the plant — growth. There is this difference, however, as man is a rational being with natural powers which are to be guided by his will, both power and will are so directed by the culture of education that they produce a powerful controlling principle which is usually termed 'habit.' "

The summing up of the whole subject of child training is well given in a paper read by Mr. Chancellor at Los Angeles, Cal., to the N. E. A. and found in the Report for 1907, page 220.

I. "Physical power is shown by feats 54 of strength, agility, and by skill in various mechanical arts.

2. "Mental power is shown by thought culture, through investigation of phenomena, and through reasoning upon the causes and effects connected therewith; as well as all rational action of the mind of whatever character.

3. ''The power of mind with respect to morality is directed to social relations, particularly, and recognizes the equal right of others with ourselves to the enjoyment of all that we may desire to satisfy our aspirations for temporal, intellectual and spiritual blessings.

4. "Power conferred by the intimacy permitted us of enjoying God's approval of our attitude toward Him and His reciprocating attitude toward us, enables us to use all our powers, physical, mental and moral so that we can glorify Him^ in our bodies and in our spirits which are His, and hve a life of Christian consistency, taking for our model the life of Christ who is our perfect example."

These principles, comprising as they do, the basis of all true education , what good , patriotic citizen could conscientiously oppose the teacher in using all proper means for the development of the ideal man as indicated in these basic principles?

Habit is the only means by which all these powers can be utilized. Hence it is of infinite importance that right habits should be cultivated, wrong ones inhibited and weeded out among the children and youth attending our schools.

CHAPTER VI. Apperception

Much has been said by psychologists and writers on pedagogy about the importance of attention. Too much emphasis has not been placed upon this attitude of the mind. The thoughtful teacher will recognize that the very first step in mind activity must be attention. No percept can be formed without it, consequently, no mental activity can exist prior to it. The teacher's opportunity then is the recitation. If she has her mind and heart stimulated by enthusiasm for the work by a careful study of the lessons which have been assigned, by the study of the pupils who are to be taught, and is wide awake and conscientious, she will have little trouble in securing the attention which is so necessary to the acquisition of knowledge and indeed to all mental development.

Concentration may be said to be a combination of two psychic principles, attention and will, or, in other words, attention intensified by the force of the will. Concentration cannot be effectively exercised in study except under certain conditions, the most important of which is that the mental process must be centered upon the point under consideration and upon that point alone.

When a child has been crowded through the grades by the cramming method he reads with difficulty and cannot read understandingly; and while he has gone through his arithmetic he is unable to solve the easy, everyday problems which enter into household expenses; knowing nothing of the application of his supposed attainments in mathematics although he can solve problems in square and cube root; provided that the one which is solved in the book is given him.

The method of cramming into the memory the details of subjects merely for the purpose of causing the pupils to be able to answer expected formal questions used in examination so that they can pass to the grade next higher is time worse than wasted. It is dishonesty of such a character that it should bring immediate punishment. As it is now practiced it will be surely found out ultimately and react upon the teacher who practices it and the punishment will be the teacher's final overthrow.

Many writers on pedagogy have with propriety urged thoroughness as a necessary requisite for scholarly attainments. Young teachers sometimes misapply the intended meaning of these instructions supposing that thoroughness means that the whole subject of arithmetic or English grammar, for instance, must be forced into the child's mind as soon as possible. So they resort to the process of cramming as the quickest possible method for making the child thorough. Arrest of development is the consequence, of course. As well might one attempt to force a rose to bloom by endeavoring to open a rosebud. Cramming, or the teacher's habit of compelling the child to memorize definitions either partly or wholly unintelligible to it, is destructive to the most important psychological principle needed in the process of true education — selfactivity. Thoroughness must be insisted upon only so far as the child is capable of understanding the subject taught. This involves the very important corollary that all intellectual culture in the elementary or fundamental principles of a science must be permanently fixed in the memory. It must be remembered, however, that this is a very different proposition from that of memorizing words. The fundamental idea being thoroughly comprehended it is comparatively easy for the child to make real progress and that without so much of the teacher's help to cause it to understand the instructions found in the text book. The child's self -activity in pursuing its school course should, at all times, receive encouragement from the teacher. The oft recurrence of the questions, "Why is this?" or "What is this for?" should receive, as far as possible, satisfactory answers from the teacher. The self -activity which promotes investigation into causes and effects leads up to the very highest pinnacle of rationality and, if rightly guided, leads up to the great First Cause of all phenomena and to the only true happiness for immortal beings.

The reader, if an experienced teacher, has met with pupils who seemed dull in their studies but intelligent enough on the playground. This has caused her to be- Ueve perhaps that such pupils were simply lazy and perverse when the real cause was attributable to a great extent to a lack of thoroughness in the preceding work done by the pupil.

Care should be taken that a pupil's advancement in reading should not be faster than his ability to call the words at sight readily and to read understandingly. Otherwise he contracts all the bad habits which cause poor reading.

Two requisites are needed in teaching arithmetic; first concrete problems should

Education-r-The Old and the New

be interspersed freely among the exercises. This may be done to advantage by using what is usually termed * 'mental arithmetic. ' ' In order that the reasoning faculties may be effectively cultivated oral analysis should be required, as it gives a mindhabit of great value in pursuing other studies. The logical steps in analysis as given in Robinson's Intellectual Arithmetic and in Holbrook's School Management have been found by the writer the most profitable in cultivating the reasoning faculties, of any that he has used.* He has usually stripped them of some of the verbiage given in the form of analysis but has retained the distinct logical steps which are not unlike those used by both ancient and modern logicians.

*Note — To illustrate: (i) 12 is % of what number? (2) 12 is % of 7 times Vq of 12. (3) Vq of 12 is 2, and 7 times 2 is 14. (4) Therefore 12 is % of 14.

Secondly, the four fundamental operations of arithmetic should be practiced until they become almost automatic. In other words, the learner should become so skilful in their use that no mental effort is consciously used in the mere addition, subtraction, multiplication or division in the solution of problems. The pupil may be solving a difficult problem in percentage and may, and probably will need to concentrate his mental powers wholly upon that which to him is a new subject to be learned. He first studies his problem; then, after devising a practical plan of procedure, takes a course which he believes will lead to success and which would do so, in most cases, but when his previous training has been lacking in thoroughness, he fails. He fails because his mind has been diverted from his straightforward course in carrying out his plan, by the simple effort of taxing the memory for the product of 7 by 9 or some such trivial deficiency in his early training.

This rather elaborate discussion of the subjects, reading and arithmetic, has been used merely to illustrate the need of thoroughness in primary training and is equally applicable to all the branches of elementary education.

The writer recollects of having been waited upon by a deputation of lady teachers immediately after completing an examination of teachers for the public schools of the county of which he was then the school superintendent. These ladies claimed that the examinations were unreasonably difficult. The lady who had been selected to do the talking said: **Why Mr. Hastings, if you would only ask us questions in Pinneo's grammar we could answer 'em all from cover to cover; but you give us parsing and the correction of errors and I never did know anything about parsing; and besides I don't see what that has to do with grammar anyway." Of course, the cause of the trouble in this case is plain enough. These ladies had been educated (?) in English by the method commonly called the cramming process. They did not succeed, however, in changing the method of conducting examinations. They continued to be conducted upon the same general principles. It is too often assumed by the teacher that a pupil who recites poorly is either lazy or indifferent, and being of a supposed evil disposition, he is treated harshly. It may be that the teacher is sometimes right in coming to such a conclusion, but it is far better to give the culprit the benefit of the doubt until careful investigation reveals the real cause of the delinquency.

The writer had a pupil many years ago who had failed to advance in his school work until he had reached the stature of manhood, while his classmates were little boys and girls averaging in size, age and literary attainments the fourth grade pupil of today. This young man had been told by his parents and his teachers, and even by his brothers, that he could never become a scholar. He had been ridiculed by his schoolmates until he had become convinced of his utter incapacity. The writer had visited the school of which he was a member and had seen him abused by his teacher. Afterward when the writer took charge of this same school, he determined to put a stop to this abuse. A confidential talk with him revealed the fact that he was not dull nor evilly disposed but simply discouraged. He was assured of his teacher's confidence in him and of his willingness to assist him in making an effort to rise. The result was surprisingly gratifying. From this time on he advanced more rapidly than did his brothers, and he is now, 19 12, a modest but intelligent member of society and a good citizen in every respect. He has an elegant and comfortable home and has not in any sense acquired his wealth by fraud. His neighbors say of him, "He is honest," "His word can be depended upon," and other like encomiums which any good citizen should value more than the emoluments of office.