Practical and scientific horseshoeing

Preface

While there is no scarcity of excellent books on horseshoeing, it is a fact that the great majority of horseshoers, and probably nine-tenths of our active horsemen, are not in possession of a text-book on this important science. This is probably due, at least in a measure, to the rather high price necessarily charged for such publications.

It has been the author's intention to compile a book which will fully cover the subject and at the same time permit those interested to obtain it at a very moderate cost.

The writer has spent many years of his life in the practical and theoretical work of horseshoeing, but it was not done with the idea of writing a Manual. Last year one of my student officers suggested that I publish my views on the subject, and, after much hesitation, the task was attempted.

An effort has been made to keep the text in simple language, and it is hoped that the reasons and explanations given will be clear and convincing to all who may read it.

A great many publications have been consulted during the preparation of the text. However, I desire

4 Preface

to especially acknowledge assistance received from "The Army Horseshoer" and "The Army Horse in Accident and Disease/' both of which books have been continuously used during my connection with the Training School for Farriers and Horseshoers.

Frank G. Churchiix.

Fort Riley, Kansas,

Chapter I. — Discussion on Shoeing 7 II. — Anatomy and Physiology of the Horse's

Foot 21

1 1 1 . — Normal Shoeing 42

IV. — Shoeing for Gaits 64

V. — Diseases of the Feet. Pathological Shoeing 68

VI.— Miscellaneous Hints 108

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate I . — The Bones of the Leg 23

II —The Foot 30-31

III. — The Foot and Pastern Axis 43

IV. — The Prepared Foot 52

V. — Level of the Foot 55

VI. — Special Shoes for Correcting Faults in Gaits. . 75

VII.— Pathological Shoes 97

CHAPTER I.

Principles of Horseshoeing.

The fundamental principle of shoeing is to protect the foot from breaking and wearing away at a rate greater than the growth of horn supplied by Nature, and at the same time interfere as little as possible with the physiological functions of the different structures of the foot.

That shoeing is a necessary evil has been admitted for centuries, and we find various means have been adopted for the protection of the feet — from the straw foot-pad used rather extensively in Japan to the modern American iron and steel shoes.

Eminent veterinarians, scientific horseshoers, and the most advanced horsemen have made long and thorough study of the science of shoeing, with the result that to-day a remarkably perfect system of shoeing is being practiced throughout this country.

In the shoeing of our horses, we should always endeavor to keep the feet in a condition as close to that which Nature intended them as is consistent with the amount and class of work required of the animal, the state of weather existing, hardness of roads, etc.

Every nail driven into the wall of the hoof destroys a certain number of horn fibers and thus tends to weaken the main weight-bearing part of the foot.

The shoe raises the frog from the ground and eliminates more or less the functions of the horny frog and elastic structures. This is much more noticeable with the; calk shoe than with the plain or plate shoe. This is just one of the many points which should be understood and considered at the time of shoeing or reshoeing animals. How often is the shoer required to put a set of calk shoes on an animal when it is not only unnecessary, but decidedly objectionable. The horse-owner has perhaps had his animals "rough" shod all winter and fails to remember that the slippery condition of the roads ceased with the coming of summer. Here he has a chance to help Nature by getting the horse's foot down on the ground, but he continues the shoeing which does the feet the greatest harm. How many thousands of cases of lame and footsore animals could be avoided each year by an intelligent consideration of the shoeing of our horses.

Before going further into the discussion of scientific shoeing, I want to say a few words "direct" to the horse-owner, the master horseshoer, the journeyman, and the horseshoer's apprentice. But I don't want any of them to stop with the reading of this "direct appeal/' I want each and every one of them to carefully read and study the remaining chapters in this manual. If this is done, I will feel that I am repaid

Practical and Scientific Horseshoeing q

for many years spent in the work and study of scientific horseshoeing. And I will also feel that the condition of many of our poor horses has been improved by the practice of some, if not all, of the principles laid down in this work.

To the Horse-Ozvner: It is considered most desirable that every horse-owner and trainer should thoroughly understand the theory of shoeing. It is hoped that the readers of this book may be placed in a position to know when their horses are in need of the sheer's care, and when the shoer has done his work properly.

The United States Government has at last realized the importance of proper shoeing, and every year some twenty-five officers of the Mounted Service are sent 10 a school for a course of practical and theoretical horseshoeing. That the sendee is greatly benefited thereby is apparent to anyone who may have an opportunity to examine the the feet of the army horses.

The foot is the most complicated part of the horse and is most susceptible to injury and disease.

The old maxim, "No foot no horse, " is true. Nature's work in the construction of the foot w r as marvelous. The horny frog, situated between the bars in the lower surface of the foot, acts as a buffer or cushion to break the jar and concussion when the foot strikes the ground, thus avoiding injury to the various io Practical and Scientific Horseshoeing

parts contained within the foot. It also assists the circulation of the blood through the foot. And proper circulation of the blood is necessary if the foot is to be kept in a sound and healthy condition.

Shoeing in such a way as to keep the foot as near a state of Nature, and at the same time to protect it from too rapid wear on hard roads, should be the aim of every horse-owner. It is economy to take proper care of the feet. There is nothing saved by insisting on having heavy or calked shoes put on your horses simply to get more wear out of them. You may cut down the shoeing bill, but the veterinarian's account in caring for your horse's neglected and damaged feet will make it a mighty expensive practice. By allowing the feet to accumulate an excessive growth of horn, and by the continued use of the calk shoe, the horny frog and elastic structures cannot perform their proper functions. A diseased condition of the foot is the result.

Front feet, on account of the amount of concussion they receive, are more susceptible to injury than are the hind.

Contracted heels, corns, quarter and toe cracks, side bones, etc., are the diseases most common in cases where the proper shoeing of the feet is not attended to. As a result of this neglect, the animal depreciates in value, and in many cases it is necessary to lay the horse up for treatment at considerable expense and much inconvenience.

This might be avoided by giving the feet more careful attention Though it may cost a trifle more for shoeing, it is money saved in the long run. A light shoe is better than a heavy one, for the reason that the heavier the shoe the more labor on the tendons and ligaments and the more readily the horse becomes fatigued. Fatigue induces stumbling and interference of the limbs.

The lightest shoe that will wear for a reasonable length of time is the best shoe to use.

The plain shoe is better than the calked, as it keeps the foot nearer a state of nature and allows the different parts to properly perform their functions.

This statement is often made: "My horse cannot" stand up on city pavements without calks on account of its ^Upj^ing." I have found by experience that under ordinary conditions a horse will stand up as well with the plain shoes as with calks. This applies particularly to the front feet. In case of heavy drafthorses, shoe plain in front and calks on the hind shoes. Most of the propelling is done with the hind feet.

A horse that is accustomed to wearing calks will be a little timid at first on pavements with the plain shoe, but will soon get used to them and travel easier and better than with the former.

The shoes should be removed and the feet trimmed once a month. If the shoes are not worn, have them reset. Many horse-owners think that as long as the shoes stay on the feet the horse does not need shoeing.

The average growth of a healthy hoof is about three-eighths of an inch per month. The horn fibers of the wall grow downward and forward, in a straight line, at an angle of from 43 to 55 degrees. The hoof is bell-shaped ; its lower border, or bearing edge, being the greatest in circumference. The shoe is fitted to the outline of this border, except at the heels where it is fitted a trifle fuller to allow for the expansion of the quarters and heels. As the wall grows the circumference of the foot becomes greater, and in time it overgrows the shoe, causing corns, contracted feet, and other diseases. The foot is continually changing in shape, w T hile the shoe is not.

The horse that is turned out to pasture or worked barefooted should have its feet trimmed frequently (every three weeks), as the wear of the feet is not always uniform. This unevenness of the hoof throws the foot out of its natural position and in many cases causes injury to the foot and leg by an unequal distribution of "weight on the horn structures and an overtaxing or straining of the tendons and ligaments.

The feet of the growing colt should be kept level and the edges of the wall rounded to prevent breaking; thus we avoid deformity of the feet and enlargements of the limbs. By doing this the feet will also be in a condition for shoeing when the animal is sent to the shoer for its first shoeing. Again, the colt, by having its feet frequently handled when young, will not resist the shoer, as many young animals do. Many young animals are spoiled in the first shoeing. A horse should be trained for shoeing just the same as it is trained for driving or riding.

Most of the horses that are classed as refractory while being shod have been brought to this condition by improper handling when green and unaccustomed to the sights and sounds of a shoeing shop. It is as much the duty of the horse-owner and the horseshoer to gradually train a young horse to submit to shoeing as it is to give him medicine when sick. Summary methods not only ruin the horse's disposition, but subject the shoer to constant danger of injury. The first step should be to teach the young animal that raising his feet will do him no harm. This should be taught by the horse-owner or a competent assistant before the horse ever enters a shoeing shop.

To raise the fore foot, stand with your back to the animal's head and place your inside hand on its shoulder; then bend over and run your hand gently down the back of the leg until the fingers, with the thumb on the outside, are just above the fetlock; your shoulder is pressed against the shoulder of the horse and forces the animal's weight upon the opposite fore foot. A slight grasp of the hand is usually sufficient to induce the horse to raise the foot.

To raise the hind foot, one should stand at the horse's flank with his back to the animal's head and his outside foot advanced; the hand nearest the horse is placed upon the animal's hip, gently pushing the weight upon the opposite leg; meanwhile the other hand is run slowly down the back tendons below the hock ; the leg is grasped under the fetlock and is slightly raised forward; now swing your inside leg under the house's leg and extend it to the rear as in the position for shoeing. When the young horse surrenders his foot, lower it gently and pat him. After the horse gets accustomed to having his feet handled, begin to get him familiar with the hammer by tapping gently on his feet with the brush or currycomb.

The next step is to let the horse grow accustomed to the shop. While the shoer is at work on a quiet horse, the young animal should be led into the shop and held by the person who has been taking care of it and who has been raising its feet. The animal should not be tied. When the animal shows neither timidity nor excitement, the shoer may begin work on the feet. Frequently the removal of the surplus growth of horn is all that can be accomplished without excitement or resistance. At the first sign of either, work for that day should be abandoned and the horse removed from the shop. Patient, quiet work will eventually succeed, and thereafter each shoeing is more easily accomplished.

To the Master Horseshoer: In order to shoe horses intelligently, the shoer should have a thorough knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the foot. Many men engaged in shoeing, and who believe themselves to be first-class workmen, are almost entirely at sea when mention is made of "the sensitive structures/' "the elastic structures," etc. A thorough and systematic study of the contents of this book, if done by every shoer, would be of untold benefit to the shoers themselves, to the horse-owner, and to the horse.

Every shop should have several sets of the bones composing the horse's foot — the bones from the fetlock joint down. A vertical section of the foot and pastern (See Plate II.) should also be part of the shop's equipment. This can so easily be accomplished that the failure to do so would be sufficient excuse for any horse-owner reading this book to take his shoeing away from the shop not so equipped to a place where the master workman has shown a desire to maintain or increase his knowledge, and also that of his workmen, in the theory and practice of horseshoeing.

These specimens may easily be obtained in any city or town in the country. Horses, like men, are dying or being killed every day. Ask the man who has just lost a horse to give you a couple of legs,, and tell him why you want them. He would respect the interest thus shown by you in your trade, and he will probably want to ask you a question or two. All this leads him to your place of business with his shoeing.

After obtaining the feet, they can be prepared on your own time. Take the neatest and most symmetrical foot and, after removing it from the upper limb at the fetlock joint, clip the hair close. Then put it in a vise with the bearing surface of the foot down. Select a sharp hand-saw (or a butcher's saw) and begin at the top of the os suffraginis and cut the foot into two equal parts, the cut being guided so as to pass directly through (not across) the cleft of the frog. After this has been done, clean the parts with a solution of bichloride of mercury and put them away in a box of salt for a couple of months. At the end of this time get your foot out, clean it up, and let it become thoroughly dried out. The bones of the foot can be boiled out, cleaned, and allowed to dry. Your friend the veterinarian can give you advice and suggestions in preparing these specimens.

It is to your advantage, and also that of the horse-owner, to talk over the shoeing of all animals coming into your shop. Get the owner interested in the shoeing of his animal by asking him how it travels, whether it strikes or stumbles, and numerous other questions occurring to you from time to time. Explain to him the necessity for bringing the animal to> the shop regularly for reshoeing. The feet need attention, whether the shoes are badly worn or not.

Encourage your journeymen in the study of the anatomy and physiology of the foot. It will repay you tenfold. Your apprentice, the horseshoer of the future, should have his interest in the work frequently stimulated. See that he is started right in his study of the anatomy and physiology of the foot, in the shoeing for gaits, etc., as well as in his mechanical work. Then watch him "grow up."

A kind word of encouragement now and then is almost as good as an advance in pay. When one keeps his apprentice interested in his work it is soon found that he rapidly increases his value to the employer. If he does not show ability for this class of work,, after a reasonable period of trial, inform him of the fact and advise him to try something else.

To improve the personnel of the calling, we must start at the bottom. Be particular in the selection of the timber for our shoers-to-be and exceedingly careful in their training. This would gradually eliminate the "cut-rater/' as he is usually a man who is not a shining light in the profession.

To the Journeyman: There is more to the art of shoeing than even the average mechanic realizes, while the average horse-owner simply realizes that the horse wears shoes, and that these shoes must occasionally be replaced. Shoeing, like a few other professions, is one in which perfection is most difficult to attain.

The horseshoer is either improving his work with practice and study or he is falling behind ; there is no such thing as remaining stationary in this art. The energetic and ambitious men are advancing, and we know what becomes of the other kind — perhaps he is driving a team some place, working in a boiler factory, or has gone back to the farm. If a job is worth doing at all, it is worth doing well. The shoer cannot be too particular in performing his work, even to< the most minute detail. Great care should be taken fn the preparation of the feet. There is more science in leveling and balancing the foot than in the fitting and nailing on of the shoe.

In order to level a foot, the shoer must first be able to determine "when the foot is level." This is not an easy matter, and in cases of deformed feet it is a decidedly difficult piece of work. Upon reading this, please question yourself as to whether you can absosolutely level a foot. Read the chapter on "Normal Shoeing," and then examine your first job and determine the question. I believe that it is safe to say that

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fifty per cent of the animals shod are turned out with at least two feet which are not level.

To the Apprentice: To become a successful horseshoer, the apprentice should possess the following qualifications : first, a fondness for horses ; second, patience and an even temperament ; third, natural mechanical tendency; fourth, determination to overcome difficulties.

Cultivate patience in the handling of horses. Much more can be accomplished with kindness than by abusive treatment of animals.

The beginner is awkward in holding and working on the foot and the animal becomes tired and fretful. The animal endeavors to get away, but instead of losing your temper and blaming the horse, remember that the fault is with you. Speak quietly to the horse, and move around him slowly. Talking in a loud and boisterous manner, or approaching him with a rush, will only add to his excitement and make it more difficult for you to handle him.

Be observing of the work going on around you. Your education is obtained principally in this manner, the workmen having but little time to devote to your detailed instruction.

When given a piece of work to perform, take time to do it well, not slighting it in the smallest detail.

Try to do each piece of work better than the preceding one.

Do not try to advance too rapidly, as this is generally to the detriment of performing good work.

Acquaint yourself with each part of the work thoroughly before attempting something new. Your future ability depends on the thoroughness with whic 1 i you have learned in the beginning. Accuracy first, then acquire speed.

You cannot start too soon on the study of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's feet. Continue this with your practical work.

Do not make the mistake of leaving one employer for another before the expiration of your apprenticeship. Different methods prevail in different shops and the apprentice is liable to become confused as to the correct way of shoeing.

Though progress is slow, and the pay not very large, it is worth your time and energy.

Make up your mind to become a first-class shoer, or find some other occupation.

CHAPTER II. Anatomy

By anatomy of the foot and leg is meant a description of the various parts entering into its formation; and by physiology if meant the functions or uses of these parts.

For pathological shoeing and shoeing for gaits it is essential that the horseshoer should thoroughly understand the anatomy and physiology of the leg and foot, both front and hind. For normal shoeing all shoersmust have unquestionable knowledge of the construction and workings of the feet from the fetlock to the ground, if the work is to be done in an intelligent manner. Study should begin with the framework of the legs, the joints, ligaments, muscles and tendons, sensitive, elastic and horny structures, the circulatory and nervous systems, and the expansion and contraction of the foot, etc., being taken up in their natural sequence.

Bones of the Legs : Named in the order from above downward, the bones of the fore leg are the scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpus, large metacarpal and two small metacarpals. Two small sesamoids form part of the fetlock joint and we will consider them as belonging to the upper leg. In the hind leg, naming them in the same manner (from above downwards) as was done for the fore leg, we have the femur, the patella, tibia and accessory leg bone called the fibula, the tarsus (six bones of the hock), consisting of the astragalus, calcaneum, cuboid, cuneiform medium, magnum and parvum, large metatarsal, two small metatarsal bones, and the two sesamoids.

Joints.

A joint is that part or space included between two articulations. Over the adjacent surfaces in the joint is a thin and very smooth layer of articular cartilage. A lubricating fluid, synovia, joint oil, is required to reduce the amount of friction ; this fluid is formed by the synovial membrane and the latter is confined and protected by the capsular ligament which completely surrounds the joint. Outside of the capsular ligament are binding ligaments holding the bones in position.

Joints of the fore leg are: shoulder joint, formed by the lower end of the scapula and the head of the humerus ; elbozv joint, by the radius, ulna, and humerus; knee joint, by the radius, seven small bones (carpals), and the upper end of the metacarpals; fetlock joint, by the large cannon, upper pastern bone, and the two sesamoids; pastern joint y by the upper and lower pastern bones ; coffin joint, by the lower pastern, coffin bone, and shuttle bone.

Joints of the hind leg: hip joint, formed by the

Fig. i. Fig. 2.

Plate I

FORELEG:

A, cartilage of prolongation; B, scapula: C, humerus; D, ulna; E, radius; F, carpus; G, small metacarpal; H, large metacarpal; I, os suffraginis; J, sesamoid; K, os coronae; L, os pedis; M, os navicularis.

HIND LEG:

i, pelvis; 2, ischium; 3, femur: 4, patella; 5, tibia; 6. fibula; 7, tarsus; 8, small metatarsal; 9, large metatarsal; 10, sesamoid: n, os suffraginis: 12, os coronae: 13, os pedis; 14, os navicularis.

socket of the pelvis and the head of the femur; stifle joint, by the lower end of the femur, head of the tibia, and the patella; hock joint, by the lower end of the tibia, six small bones (tarsals), and the upper ends of the metatarsals.;

Ligaments.

Ligaments are, generally speaking, strong bands of white fibrous inelastic tissue. Their principal use is to firmly bind joints together, thus preventing vibration and diminishing friction.

The suspensory ligament is a long, strong band of fibrous tissue originating in the back part of the lower bones of the knee and in the upper) part of the large metacarpal bone; it occupies the space between the small metacarpal bones and passes down immediately behind the large metacarpal bone, lying between it and the tendon of the flexor pedis perforans; it Bifurcates opposite the lower third of the large metacarpal bone and becomes attached to the sesamoids, whence the parts pass forward and downward, joining the tendon of the extensor pedis just above the pastern joint. It is thin and comparatively weak near the knee, but as it nears the fetlock joint, it almost equals the back tendons in substance, and its size and wiriness to the touch may be taken as an indication of the power of any particular leg to resist a breakdown.

However, this ligament is liable to numerous accidents and it is often found to be badly sprained.

The suspensory ligament of the hind leg corresponds in every particular to that of the fore leg.

The calcaneo-cuboid ligament stretches from the posterior border of the calcaneum to the posterior part of the cuboid, ending on the head of the external splint bone. A sprain of this ligament is known as a "curb."

Capsular ligaments, as we have seen, are pouchshaped, are found around joints, and are intended to protect the lubricating apparatus inside.

Muscles and Tendons.

The muscles of the limbs are known as voluntary muscles and they are under the direct control of the will. They are also classed as long muscles.

A tendon is a tough cord or band of dense, inelastic, white fibrous connective tissue, uniting a muscle with some other part and transmitting the force which the muscle exerts.

Extensors are those that have the power of straightening the limb; flexors, of bending the limb.

The extensor pedis tendon is the principal extensor of the fore leg; it originates at the lower extremity of the humerus, and its fleshy portion continues to the lower third of the radius; at this point it becomes tendinous, and, passing down over the knee, continues along the front of the leg and becomes attached to the upper and front part of the os pedis.

The flexor pedis perforatum originates from the inner and lower part of the humerus ; it passes down the back part of the leg, becoming tendinous just above the carpus; behind the pastern it bifurcates, forming a ring for the passage of the tendon of the perforans, and becomes attached to the sides of the os coronse. Its action is to bend or flex the knee, fetlock, and pastern.

The flexor pedis perforans originates with the perf oratus ; its fleshy portion passes down and is attached to the back part of the radius; its tendinous portion, beginning at the knee, passes down the leg between the large metacarpal bone and the tendon of the perf oratus, over the back of the fetlock, through the arch formed by the division of the tendon of the perf oratus, and is attached to the under surface of the os pedis. Its action is to flex the knee and all joints below.

The extensor pedis of the hind leg originates from the lower and front part of the femur ; its fleshy portion extends downward along the front surface of the tibia to the hock, where it becomes tendinous ; passing thence down the front of the leg, it is attached in the same manner as the extensor pedis of the front leg. Its action is to extend the leg and flex the hock.

The flexor pedis perf oratus of the hind leg originates at the back and lower part of the femur. Its fleshy portion extends about half-way down the tibia, then becomes tedinous, and passes over the point of the hock, continues down the back of the leg, and is attached in the same manner as the perforatus of the front leg. Its action is to extend the hock and to flex the fetlock and pastern.

The flexor pedis perforans of the hind leg originates at the upper and back portion of the tibia. Above the hock it becomes tendinous and passing down over the inner and back side of the hock is attached to the os pedis in the same manner as the perforans of the front limb. Its action is to extend the hock and to flex the joints below.

The Foot.

We have considered that "the foot" includes all that part of the limb from the fetlock joint to the ground.

For the study and consideration of the foot, wc will divide it into the following parts :