Public speaking and reading; a treatise on delivery according to the principles of the new elocution

Preface

The principles of this treatise are in accord with what may reasonably be called the " New Elocution."' The term " New Elocution " describes, in the first place, the style of delivery in vogue among the representative speakers of to-day, and in the second place, the method employed by the best teachers of the subject. The style of delivery, especially since the oratory of Wendell Phillips and Henry Ward Beecher, has been conversational at basis ; that is, it has been simple, direct, varied, and spontaneous. The new method of teaching lays stress mainly upon mental conditions. It recognizes more fully that man is mind as well as body ; and it aims at making the speaker skilful, by attending to the mental, as well as the physical and vocal conditions.

Again, contrary to the usual methods, I have taken up Delivery from the rhetorician's point of view, and have developed it according to the principles of accepted psychology ; while from the beginning to the end the practical requirements of the subject have been kept in view. These features, together with the doctrine of the conversational basis, make the method pre-eminently a natural one.

Without attempting to give a full account in this place of the distinguishing features of the book, the author calls special attention, to Book II., Chapter i., on "The Mental Content of Language. "

While the book will greatly benefit any student, it by no means supplants the teacher ; for without thorough practice and study, very few persons are able to accurately inspect

8 PREFACE

their own effort. Then, too, the ability to diagnose one's own or another's needs is comparable to the physician's skill, and is gained only by prolonged practice in teaching. Moreover, to secure the best results, a teacher to illustrate and exemplify the principles will be necessary.

This treatise is adapted to the laboratory method of instruction. The student is taught the principles of the art, the instruments and elements are named, the problems are set, and he is required to experiment for himself under the eye and ear of the teacher; he is then shown wherein he fails or succeeds. Only as the individual is reached can instruction be made effective ; and each teacher as well as student will, soon or late, find out how farcical, without supplementary practice given to the individual, is the attempt to treat large classes.

While presenting the principles, training for physical and vocal development should be given from the start. Each teacher must determine for himself, however, the pedagogical order of the instruction.

This book is the result of much study, and considerable experience in teaching in High Schools, in Harvard University, and in Boston University.

The author sends it out in the belief that it will help many teachers, and will aid in the promotion of good speaking. It will be found best adapted to colleges and preparatory schools.

Although there is very little in this book directly attributable to my former teachers, with pleasure I acknowledge my indebtedness to the late Dean Monroe as a leader in the New Elocution, and as the first teacher to show me the importance of affecting the mental conditions. Wherever due, I have given special credit in the body of the book.

Cambridge, June 7, 1895.

BOOK II Sources of the Essentials of Public Speaking

I. Mental Content of Language 34

Sec. I. Attention t>7

II. Analysis 38

1. Meaning as a whole 39

2. Logical Relations 40

3. Meaning of the Words 41

4. New Idea . 41

5. Ellipses 42

6. Imagination 43

7. Associated Ideas ... 44

8. Emotions 45

10 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

II. Earnestness 50

III. Physical Vitality 54

IV. Control 56

V. Reserved Force 62

Specialization of Function 63

VI. Conversational Basis 65

VII. The Audience 68

1. Communicative Attitude 70

2. Deferential Attitude 71

VIII. Good-Will 72

IX. Variety 74

BOOK III Elements of the Essentials of Public Speaking

I. Elements of Clearness 76

Sec. I. Enunciation 76

1. Syllabication 76

2. Accent jj

3. Vowel Moulding jy

4. English Vowels yS

5. English Consonants 79

II. Emphasis 80

III. Phrasing, or Grouping 82

IV. Transition S^

II. Elements of Force 86

*• Sec. I. A Good Voice 86

2. Flexibility S7

3. Purity of Tone Sy

4. Range of Pitch S7

5. Resonance 8S

6. Vocal Defects 91

7. Vocal Development 92

Sec. II. Kinds of Voice 99

1. Voice of Pure Tone 99

2. Full Voice 100

3. Aspirate Voice 100

4. Guttural Voice 100

TABLE OF CONTENTS II

CHAPTER PAGE

II. Elements of Force — Continued

Kinds Classified ioo

i. Intellective Voice ioo

2. Vital Voice 101

3. Affectional Voice 101

III. Inflection 103

IV. Rhythm 106

V. Melody of Speech no

VI. Stress 112

VII. Loudness '. 113

VIII. Time or Rate 113

IX. Climax 114

X. Imitative Modulation 115

XI. Gesture 116

Subjective Gesture 118

Picture-Making Gesture 119

Laws of Gesture 119

Praxis 121

Criteria 124-130

III. Elements of Elegance 131

Sec. I. Harmony of Function 131

II. Pronunciation 132

III. Agreeable Voice 1

IV. Strong and Graceful Movements i j:

1. Physical Development 135

PART II Praxis in Delivery

Analysis of a Speech 140

Types of Deliyery 145

Index To Selections

Antony's Oration Shakespeare .... 140

White Horse Hill Tho7?ias Hughes . . . 146

The May Pole of Merry Mount . . . Natha7iiel Hawthorne . 14S

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Await the Issue T/ios. Carlyle

National Bankruptcy Mirabeau .

Brutus and Cassius Shakespeare

Brutus, Cassius, and Casca .... Shakespeare

Paul Revere's Ride Longfellow .

An Order for a Picture Alice Cary .

Skill and Beauty in Art John Ruskin

The Boston Massacre Geo. Bancroft

Rip Van Winkle, Part I Washington Irving

" " Part II " "

Tom Pinch's Journey to London . . . Charles Dickens .

Eloquence Daniel Webster .

The Orator's Art John Quincy Adams

From Henry V Shakespeare

Herve Riel, Part I Robert Browning .

" " Part II " "

Hamlet's Advice to the Players . . . Shakespeare .

Othello's Defence ....... Shakespeare

The Scholar in a Republic .... Wendell Phillips .

The Problem of the New South . H. W. Grady

The Scholar in Politics . . . . . G. W. Curtis .

Hyder Ali's Revenge Burke ....

Havelock's Highlanders W. Brock .

"55

201 204

Introduction

Public Speaking is the art of efficient public communication by spoken and gesticular language. 1 Reading and recitation, in short, all kinds of delivery, before few or many, are included under this term. The subject includes all that is now taught as rhetoric and delivery. Anciently, as is indicated by the Greek word prjrup, meaning speaker, Rhetoric was identical with Public Speaking. " Aristotle/' says Professor Hill, " makes the very essence of rhetoric to lie in the distinct recognition of an audience."

This treatise deals with the fundamental processes of Public Speaking, and especially with those involved in the act of Delivery. It assumes familiarity with the technique of what is now taught as rhetoric. Those who lack this assumed familiarity are referred to books on rhetoric for such topics as the Choice and Use of Words, the Doctrine of the Sentence and the Paragraph, Figures of Speech, Different kinds of Composition, Style, and other topics connected with Composition.

Extensive Knowledge, a Reliable Memory, Logical Skill, and Tact, utilizing common-sense and a knowledge of human nature by means of which the speaker adapts the speech and its delivery to a particular audience, are among the sources of power in Public Speaking.

But as these topics belong more to the preparation than to the delivery of the speech, they are dismissed from consideration in this book.

1 See Principles of Rhetoric, by A. S. Hill, p. i. 13

The related sciences of Grammar, Logic, ^Esthetics, and Ethics contribute their laws to the art. Hence the confusion of those who .^peak of the subject as a science.

As the subject is an art, it has skill as its aim ; and from the beginning to the end, in this attempt to methodize instruction in Public Speaking, this aim is kept before the student ; and a distinct effort made to render him skilful in commanding the principles to which, consciously or unconsciously, effective speaking must always conform. Accordingly, instead of the hopeless method of prescribing innumerable rules impossible of application, this treatise aims to thoroughly analyze the sources and elements of the essentials of the art, and to exhibit the leading excellences that must be cultivated in contrast with the faults that are to be corrected.

The art of making a speech involves, usually, the process of reproducing a set of ideas upon some subject. If there has been previous reflection upon a subject, whether the discourse has been written or not, it is, in its delivery, a reproduction. But effective reproduction is creative, and not mechanical. Moreover, discourse created or re-created at the point of delivery is extemporaneous. Hence, in the praxis of written or printed selections, since creation or recreation as a central and essential idea is strenuously insisted on, the discipline of this work qualifies for the delivery of either written or unwritten matter.

Speaking Distinguished from Reading.

To further distinguish the properties of delivery, it is important to recognize the wide difference between readi?ig and speaking. Listening to the delivery of a person who is out of sight, you can ordinarily determine whether he is reading (that is, delivering from manuscript or the printed page) or speaking (that is, composing in the act of delivery).

Without being able to analyze the difference, any one can also distinguish between the delivery in the ordinary reading of a newspaper or book, and that of ordinary conversation ; this, too, when the style of the composition does not betray the difference ; for it can be determined by the tones, even when the words and sentences are not distinguishable. What, then, constitutes the difference between these two styles of delivery?

In reading, the delivery is more uniform. The pitch, the degree of force, the length and place of the pauses, vary but little. It is popularly called u monotonous," " inexpressive ; " and where great force or loudness is employed this delivery is characterized as " declamatory," " heavy," "noisy," as "spouting," "preaching." A single word, then, variety, describes the distinguishing characteristic of conversational or speaking delivery. In speaking, the pitch, the kind of voice, the rate, the pause, and all other elements of delivery, are continually changing. It has the variability of life.

The ground of this variability is the way the mind acts. In reading, there is little differentiation of the thoughts : the emotion is unvaried. It is indeed, mainly, the emotion connected with a kind of chant, and closely associated with the sense of rhythm. In this form of expression the mind is less alert, and it runs along " the line of the least resistance."

On the other hand, in conversation we have the original function, and also the very essence of all language. As spoken language precedes written language, so also the delivery of the unwritten word precedes the delivery of the written word. Moreover, the function of language is a social one, and hence presupposes one mind communicating with another, — indeed, one person thinking with another ; for in real conversation, thought and word are one. In conversation, the expression is more spontaneous, more l6 INTRODUCTION

direct. The sub-processes (that is, the processes producing voice and gesture) are held in their subordinate places. Mind appears to act more immediately upon mind without being conscious of the media of communication. The thought and feeling are created in the act of delivery.

With that other use of the word " reading," meaning the expressional delivery of what another has composed, we are not at present concerned. Our purpose is rather to contrast reading with speaking; and to show that the former is mechanical, and the latter creative, or expressive, delivery.

This distinction between reading and speaking is the popular one. The majority of people dislike sermons that are read in contrast to those that are spoken. In this treatise, " speaking w includes the delivery of all forms of written or unwritten matter that creates the thought in the act of delivery.

" Reading " (that is, word-delivery or statistical representation of facts), requires only distinct enunciation of words, and, hence, expressional discipline is unnecessary. The purpose of all elocutionary practice aims at speaking as its legitimate goal.

Public Speaking is Conversational at Basis.

According to this analysis, speaking, conversation, and extemporaneous delivery, are essentially the same. Each has the same property of variety. In each the mind acts with the same spontaneity and directness. Each, too, creates or re-creates the ideas at the point of delivery. As distinguished from these, Public Speaking, according to the most approved delivery, may be further characterized as the heightened conversational. At basis it is simple, direct, spontaneous, varied, creative ; but heightened in pitch, force, and in the other elements, as determined by the emotional content of the discourse. Corresponding to this, it is to be observed that " declamatory," or " orotund," delivery is heightened reading. This form of reading-delivery also is to be avoided.

Predominant and Subordinate Processes.

One of the difficulties in Public Speaking arises from the great number and variety of the processes. Some of these processes are predominant, and others are subordinate. Now, in all speaking, good or bad, the predominant processes are the ones that express themselves. Hence the importance of making the ideas to be communicated the predominant processes, and the means to this end the subordinate ones. Frequently, however, through lack of skill, the processes that should be subordinate become predominant ones. The speaker obviously puzzles over the grammar, the rhetoric, or the gesture of his address. At one time the speaker gives his main effort to discerning the words of his manuscript ; at another (as in memoriter delivery) he is absorbed in the labor of recalling the language. Instead, all of those operations of mind and body that may be regarded as means, are to be held in their places as sub-processes. The thought and feeling, together with the volitional attitude which the speaker intends to produce in the mind of the hearer, are always to be regarded as the predominant process ; and hence should form the leading content of the speaker's mind.

The Main Problem.

The main problem before the student is to secure the right mental action. When this is done, the body responds.

First, the thought and feeling intended as the predominant process, and constituting the speech proper, or the matter of the address, is clearly, from beginning to end, the result of mental activity. This mastery of the ideas of the discourse constitutes the primary aspect of the Main Problem.

In the second place, voice and its various modifications, gesture — in short, the use of all of the instruments or means of communication constituting the subordinate processes, or the maimer of the address, vaguely regarded by some as physical changes, are also the result of mental activity. We mean to say, in brief, that no one can produce a sound, or change a pitch, or make a gesture, without the action of the mind. The proper use of the voice and other agents of expression depends, therefore, upon right mental action, as fully as does the mastery of the ideas. Such proper use of the means constitutes the secondary aspect of the Main Problem.

For the solution of this Main Problem, both the subjective and the objective treatment are employed. The subjective treatment deals directly with the content of the mind ; that is, with the thought and feeling.

The thought and feeling are analyzed and dwelt upon. Related ideas are brought forward ; and thus, by dealing with the factors of the mind directly, we seek to promote right mental action with reference to the subject-matter and its expression. This treatment is more fully developed under the chapter on "The Content of Language. "

In the objective treatment, however, we call attention to the agents (the chest, the mouth, the hands, etc.), and to the elements (emphasis, pitch, etc.), expressive of the thought and feeling.

The objective treatment is based upon the fact that bodily states affect mental states ; hence, by assuming the physical attitude, the corresponding mental state is initiated and promoted. We not only entreat the angry man not be angry, but also coax him to sit down and not speak so loudly ; that is, to assume the act and attitude of composure. Practically, an emotion and its expression are one and the same thing. The emotion of the sublime, for instance, is developed by assuming the low pitch, measured time, and approximate monotone expressive of this emotion. This treatment, reaching the mind by calling attention to the physical states, is the shorthand method of every-day life. Just as the child is told to "quit whining," and to "straighten out" his face, so also, in elocutionary training, we say, " Speak louder," " Pause more frequently," " Speak on a lower pitch."

The objective treatment, therefore, promotes not only the proper use of the agents and elements of expression, but also a mastery of the subject-matter, or the ideas in process of delivery. For instance, the intention to lift the voice to a higher pitch with increased ictus, as a means of rendering it emphatic, makes that w T ord prominent, and hence emphatic in the mind. The mind, in turn, reacts upon the voice, and promotes that intention. The effect is reciprocal. Thus it is seen that the subjective and objective treatment are the two ways of promoting right mental action.

The discipline here recommended develops the power to think at the point of delivery, or to think through delivery, and also to master the technique or to use the instruments of Expression.

At the risk of being tedious to some, we will further illustrate the subjective and objective treatment.

" The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof ; the world, and they that dwell therein."

The subjective treatment of this sentence requires that the student understand the history of the psalm of which it forms a part, the occasion and method of its use as an antiphonal psalm in the temple service ; dwell upon each word ; analyze the thought ; especially, develop the emotional content of the sentence. The feeling is one of majesty, of triumph, and splendidly sublime. Notice, according to the method of Hebrew poetry, that the second clause repeats the idea of the first, and hence is not differentiated as a new thought. In short, apply the method of the chapter on " The Content of Language."

In reading this psalm, if the student find himself delivering it on a high pitch, with metallic ring and rapid rate, the objective treatment orders him to use a lower pitch, to slow rate, full tone, full major slides, and with due observance of the rhythm.

A too exclusive use of the objective treatment is a feature of the old elocution, and runs into the mechanical.

The Lesser Problem.

The lesser problem before the student is to modify or remove bodily limitations. Obviously, some limitations are only partially, and others not at all removable. It is assumed, however, that the most important organs are modifiable, and that especially their functions may be rendered more full, economic, and accurate. Faulty breathing may be corrected, the chest capacity developed, vocal quality improved, the bearing and movement rendered strong, graceful, and free — in short, all the organs of speech and gesture may be developed, and the channels cleared for the prompt, accurate, and full expression of the mental states.

In exercises for physical and vocal development, the organs, as such, are dealt with. Even in such exercise, however, the feelings and imagination are utilized ; and as bodily limitations are oftenest functional, the main and the lesser problems nearly merge into the one problem of disciplining the mind's action. Moreover, in this technical training on special non-expressive exercises for physical and vocal development, from the very beginning, the expressional use of the organs is anticipated.

The principles of Public Speaking can be realized only in use ; and to point out the specific excellences and faults of any delivery requires the skill of an experienced practitioner. Hence the teacher becomes a trainer, enabling the pupil to accomplish what, in all probability, he never would accomplish alone.

Individuality.

In the practical pursuit of the subject, the question of individuality, or personality, arises. The method here offered, dealing as it does with general principles, and directing the main effort to realize the thought in the act of delivery, instead of prescribing absolute and arbitrary forms, ought to be a sufficient guarantee that individuality, or personality, will have all the freedom it can reasonably claim.

It is to be conceded that all good speakers do not speak alike. On the other hand, every one needs to remove, as far as possible, vocal and bodily limitations ; to suppress glaring mannerisms ; to develop versatility and responsiveness to thought and feeling outside of the individual habits. Moods of the individual that impede the realization of the thought and feeling of the subject must be subordinated or practically eliminated, and a broader capacity developed. To mention a specific and marked case, a person of an overserious mood must develop the possibility of other moods. Again, a speaker who conceives an idea merely as fact must also realize it as an emotion.

Development in expressional power is always in the direction of emotional mastery. That which is narrow, accidental, and limited, must give place to the varied and universal. The difference among speakers is attributable to the different ways of realizing the thought, or what amounts to the same thing, the different way the thought affects each emotionally. Take the following sentence for an illustration : —

' 'All in the valley of death Rode the six hundred. "

This may be conceived merely as a fact : there were six hundred men in this charge here described. There may have been a few more or less, or possibly just six hundred. They all without exception rode forward at the command.

The enemy were in front, to right and left — a valley; and, as we know, it was death to most of them.

Again, this may be conceived as fact that affects the speaker emotionally. The leading emotion may be that of horror at the thought of these soldiers, because of a blunder, marching to almost inevitable death. In this conception the word " all " has more than statistical value. It shows the extent of the doom. " Valley of Death'' now takes on a more sombre color. It is not merely a historic fact, but a present reality. Imagination reproduces the scene. The " valley" and "riders," with "cannon in front," "to right" and "left," volleying and thundering, are in sight.

Still another conception may arouse feelings of admiration and heroism as we see the splendid discipline and bravery of these men. This conception will emotionally affect all of the subordinate ideas. The words, " all," " valley of death," and so all the rest, which have much in common, are changed from the first conception. These, and possibly other conceptions, may be combined. Moreover, in any conception that intends to reproduce the thought of another, the variety of lights and shades and crossings of emotions are almost endless. '

Again, the character, the culture of the individual, not to mention his peculiarities, will contribute an important element. No two minds reproduce the same thought in the same way. No speaker reproduces his own ideas in the same way.

It is just this difference in conception that gives largest opportunity to individuality or personality. Not only mental quality, but the nervous system and physical conditions, are a part of the matter. I have found frequently that some mannerism, which was the result of nervous conditions, or which was capriciously or possibly accidentally adopted, was as tenaciously held to as the most sacred attribute of personality. We must distinguish between peculiarity and personality. Things of habit, good or bad, are dear to us. The student of speaking should be sane. In fact, the nervous state and dominating moods frequently render it impossible for the speaker to fully realize other emotions. To such an one it must be said, " Ye must be born again ! " All, to some extent, need such regeneration. Like all educational growth, it is a process, and hence requires discipline under intelligent direction. Elocution treated on this basis is of the highest value as a means of culture. In spite, however, of the rational and practical method of treatment, the teacher frequently appears to invade the personality of the speaker ; hence, in drill, it will require care on the part of the teacher, and patience on the part of the student.

PART I

PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

Chapter I Clearness, Force, And Elegance

While listening to speakers for the purpose of determining their respective effectiveness, judges find it necessary to consider the delivery with reference to at least three things, — intelligibility, or ease, with which the speaker makes himself understood ; the ability of the speakei to interest and move the listener ; and the ease and gracefulness of the delivery, especially with reference to the bearing and gesture. Although not always so clearly analyzed by every one, these are the qualities that make speaking effective to all listeners.

These three groups of properties, under the names of Clearness, Force, and Elegance, are regarded by teachers of rhetoric as the essential properties of style ; and in keeping with the rhetorical spirit, these terms are used to represent the essential properties of delivery.

Clearness. — One of the principal aims of public speaking is to give information. This aim addresses the understanding and satisfies the demand of the intellect. The group of properties by means of which information is communicated is called " clearness." Professor Bain describes it as " opposed to obscurity, vagueness, ambiguity, or ill— defined boundaries." * Prof. A. S. Hill says, " It is not enough to use language that may be understood, he [a writer or speaker] should use language that must be understood," and quotes Quintilian and Emerson to the same effect 2

In Public Speaking, clearness means more than the choice of words and sentences for this purpose. The clearest style of a Newman may be rendered obscure in the delivery.

By the use of proper enunciation, varied pitch, pause, emphasis, and other elements of speech, the speaker must render the thought so clear to the ear that the listener cannot fail to understand at once the purposed idea.

If, for purposes of information, a speaker aims only at the bare statement of facts, as in rendering judicial opinions, in the technical treatment of scientific subjects, and in reading news items, the speaking, if it is clear, answers every demand. 3 It is seldom, however, that a speech is limited to this single purpose.

Force. — The second of the leading aims of speaking, and especially of oratory, is persuasion. Persuasion affects the will principally through the emotions. The group of qualities, by means of which the emotions are stirred and the will affected, is variously called " vivacity," " energy," " strength," " force." The term " force," as we have seen, is now more generally used.

While the tendency is toward a factive simplicity in Public Speaking, and especially toward a suppression of excessive emotion and sentimental adornment, so long as man is capable of poetry, and is susceptible of aesthetic influences, a speech must have certain emotional qualities. Conditions may modify the emotions, but can never obliterate them.

1 English Composition and Rhetoric. Bain, p. 48.

2 Principles of Rhetoric, by A. S. Hill, p. 65.

3 A. S. Hill's Rhetoric, p. 84.

CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND ELEGANCE 29

Force satisfies this demand of the emotions ; and while the listener does not consciously attend to the emotional states nor seek to promote them as he does an understanding of the speech, yet if a speaker lacks force, he is, in popular language, called "dull," " dry," " lifeless," " inexpressive," " without force"

But declamation and noise should not be mistaken for Force. A blind struggle for this property leads to just this mistake. The softest tone, the gentlest whisper, may be more forceful than the strongest declamation.

Silence is often forceful. A natural manner, a vivacious, but subdued and dignified delivery, is the most impressive delivery, and is Forceful in the sense used in this book.

By means of Force in the Delivery, the speaker first of all holds the attention of the audience ; the listener "awakes the senses," is alert and anticipative. Beyond this, other emotions, indeed, the whole range of emotions, may be affected.

Elegance. — Public speaking, in the next place, aims to please. To give pleasure is a motive leading in poetry, prominent in the essay, and not neglected in oratory; for speech can persuade only as it pleases.

The group of qualities that renders the discourse agreeable, and that gives the charm of language that pleases, is, as we have already said, called by the rhetoricians, " elegance." It corresponds to the feelings, and satisfies the demand of the aesthetic nature.

Besides the usual rhetorical elements that appeal to taste and imagination, and upon which the pleasing quality of the speech is primarily based, elegance in delivery demands also an agreeable voice, strong, easy bearing, graceful gesture, harmony of function, and correct pronunciation.

A Working Scheme.

In practice, the student still finds it difficult to hold before the subconscious attention the leading processes involved in good speaking. He frequently says, " I lost sight of thu while attending to the other." " I find it difficult to attend to so many things." Hence some scheme of summarizing the various sources and elements, especially for beginners, is important.