Representative English prose and prose writers

Preface

The present volume is offered as a contribution to the study of Enghsh Prose in its representative Eidorical Periods, in its representative Liierary Forms and in some of its Bepresentative Authors. That portion of our prose is especially discussed that dates its beginning from the reign of Elizabeth in the writings of Bacon and Hooker and extends to the present decade in the pages of Cariyle. This is English Prose Proper. As we advance, careful attention will be given to the discussion of English Prose Style as visibly expressed in a few of our prominent prose writers. The work will be literary, throughout, in its method, subject matter, and purpose, as distinct from that order of treatment that might be termed technical or speculative. A detailed account of the life and times of the separate authors examined will thus be aside from our main design, such allusions being made only in so far as they serve to cast light on the particular author's work as an author.

We have aimed to make the discussion both philosophic and practical, in a department of our literature as yet but approximately covered.

We trust that the treatise is so presented in thought and external form, that, while serving a special educational purpose in our coUege class-rooms, it may also prove stimulating and helpful to every' ingenuous student of Enghsh Letters. T. W. H.

College of New Jekset.

Princeton. N J.. Feb. 1887.

Part I. Kepresentative Historical Periods

Classification of Periods 43

CHAPTER I.

THE FORMATIVE PERIOD.

A — Causes or Agencies 49

Friendly Agencies 49

1. Antecedent Work 49

2. Awakening of English Literaiy History . . 50

3. Attitude of Royalty 51

4. English Versions of Scripture 52

Adverse Agencies 54

1. Grammatical Structure 54

2. Rise of Euphuism 55

3. Revival of Classical Languages ..... 56

1^' TABLE OF CONTENTS.

B. — Chaeactekistics 59

1. Increasing Grammatical Regularity 59

2. Increasing Vocabulary 60

3. English Spirit 60

4. Versatility 61

5. Human or Catholic Spirit 62

6. Protestant and Ethical Spirit . 63

CHAPTER XL THE TRANSITION PERIOD.

Transitions 67

Appeopkiateness of the teem to this Epoch .... 69

A. — Chaeacteeistics 71

1. Franco-English 71

2. Inferiority of Diction 73

B. — HEiiPFuij Agencies 75

1. Popular Agitation 75

2. Personal Character and Work 77

CHAPTER ITT.

THE PERIOD OE SETTLEMENT.

The tbeivi AuausTAN 80

Appeopeiateness op the woed, Settled 87 ,

A Peeiod op Peose 88

A. — Chaeicteeistics 90

1. Periodical 90

2. Popular 92

B. — Adveese Agencies 94

Rise of French Criticism 94

C. — FEiENDiiY Agencies . 95

Philological Study of English 95

Chapter IV. The Period Of Expansion And Expression

Pkevadence op Pbose in this Age 100

TABLE OF CONTENTS. V

The wokds, Expansive and Expbessive 101

A. — Special Charactseistics 103

^, 1. English 103

2. Literary 104

8. Natural 105

B. — Helpfue Agencies 107

1. Influence of Germany 107

2. Political Agitation 110

3. Eevival of Eirst-Englisli 115

General Inferences 116

1. Comparative Limits of Periods 116

2. Comparative Amounts of Prose and Poetry . . . 116

3. Unity of Periods 117

4. Progressive Development 118

5. The Period and the Writer 119

PART 11.

REPEESENTATIYE LITERARY FORMS.

LiTEEARY Forms 125

The word, Forms 125

Methods of Classification 126

Chapter I. Historical Or Narrative Prose

Contents 128

Remarks . . • 130

History Proper 133

Its Meaning 133

A. — Cha.racteristics op Historic Prose 134

1. Accuracy of Statement 134

2. Clearness of Statement 134

3. Unity and Order 135 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS.

4. Delineation 136

5. Simplicity 137

6. Gravity 137

B. — ^Methods 138

1. The Chronological 138

2. The Logical . . . . , 138

Suggestions 139

C EI AFTER II.

DESCRIPTIVE OE POETIC PROSE.

The woed, Desceiptive 143

Benefit of Desceiptive Peose to Style 144

The Mental Element in this Foebi 145

Peovince of Desceiptine Peose 146

Poetical Peose 146

Peose Fiction 148

The Phrase Prose Fiction 148

Classes of Peose Fiction • 151

1. The Historical Novel 151

2. The Descriptive Novel 152

3. The Ethical Novel 153

4. The Eomantic Novel 155

Rank and Value op Peose Fiction 158

Geneeal Chaeacteeistics of Desceiptive Peose . . . 159

1. The Imaginative Element . . ' 159

2. Pictorial Diction 160

3. Comprehensiveness and Minuteness 160

Chapter III. Oratorical Or Impassioned Peose

A. — Chaeacteeistics . . , 162

1. Emotional 162

2. Objective 163

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vli

4. Interesting and Stimulating 165

Notes 166

B.— Divisions 167

1. Forensic Prose 167

2. Judicial 168

CHAPTEFt lY, PHILOSOPHICAL OE DIDACTIC PEOSE.

A. — Chaeactebisttcs 174

1. Unimpassioned 174

2. Thorough 174

3. Sedate and Dignified 176

4. Adaptive 177

5. Prose Distinctively 177

B. — Contents ". 178

Notes 181

CHAPTER A^ MISCELLANEOUS PEOSE.

A. — General Characteristics 183

1. Variety of Topic 184

2. Brevity 185

3. Unity of Benefit 186

4. Increasing Literary and Moral Character .... 188

5. English in Origin 190

6. Human and Natural 191

B. — ^Divisions 192

1. Essays 192

3. Travels and Tales 195

4. Journalism 197

Ikfebences 198 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

1. The Relation of Prose Forms to Prose Periods . . 198

2. Relative Value of Forms 200

3. Form and Idea 201

Part III. Representative Prose Writers And Their Styles

A. — Classification of I'jkoss Authoks 205

33. — Expii.AJSATOEY Statemsnts 207

Plan of Discussion 209

Chapter I. The Prose Style Of Francis Bacon

BioGE.APHicAii Sketch 211

His Use of Latin 211

His Pbose Wobss in English 214

Leading Qualities of his Style 217

Excellencefi 217

1. Condensation and Compactness 217

2. Analytical Clearness and Suggestion . ... 219

3. Incisiveness 220

4. Strength and Force 222

5. Imagination and Illustration 224

6. Versatility and Variety 223

Main FaulU or Defects 227

1. Want of a pnre English Diction 227

2. Want of Development of Idea 229

3. Want of Literary Finish 230

CHAPTER IT.

THE PROSE STYLE OF RICHARD HOOKER.

BlOGBAPHICAL SkETOH 231

HiiJ Pkose Authoeship 231

TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix

The Timeliness of his Peose Pboduction 232

Merits 23'i:

1. Philosophic Weight and Vigor 234

2. Logical Soqaence 237

Leading Faults 239

Diction and Structure 239

Chapter III. The Prose Style Oe John Milton

Biogeaphicaij Sketch 246

Milton as a Pboss Weitsb 2if>

His Peose Wobss in E^aLisH 2i,J

Chief Defects of his style . 251

1. Anglo-Latin Diction and Consbriiction . . . . 2'3l

2. Faulty Imagery 253

3. Personal Allusion 255

Liteeaey Meeits •. . 25J

1. Ingenuousness 25 '3

2. Directness of Purpose 257

3. Impassioned Energy 251)

CHAPTER TV.

THE PROSE STYLE OE JONATHAN SWIFT.

Biogeaphical Sketch 265

His Peose Wbitings 2(35

Chaeacteeistigs of his Style 2r)3

Faults . 269

1. Absence of Literary Elegance . . . . . . 270

2. Inferior Order of Imagination 271

1. Force and Spirit 272

2. Satirical Power 271

3- Individuality and ludependence 276

4. Good Use of English 278

5. Freedom from Pedantry 285

X TABLE OF CONTR?TTS.

CHz^PTER V.

THE PEOSB STYLE OF JOSEPH ADDISON.

blogkaphical sketch 288

His Pbose Works 288

His Pbosb Style 291

Special Features of his Style 291

1. Lifcerary Gentleness and Grace 291

2. Plainness and Precision 294

3. Wit and Humor 298

4. Versatility 302

5. Ethical Character 304

Addison's Critical Ability 305

CHAPTER VI.

THE PPtOSE STYLE OF SAMUEL JOHNSON.

BioGRAPHiGAji Sketch 310

ExAi^nNATioN of HIS Style • . 311

Defects 311

1. Anglo-Latin Element 311

2. Want of Flexibility 317

3. Absence of Impassioned Energy ..... 321 Merits of Us Style 323

1. Substantial Clearness 323

2. Literary Gravity . . . , 325

3. Johnsonianism 328

His Work as Lexicographer and Critic . . . . . .331

CHAPTER VII.

THE PROSE STYLE OF EDMUND BURKE.

View as to his Rank 334

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi

His Prose Style, Conditions 339

Characteristics of his Style 342

1. Forensic and Impassioned . 342

2. Dignified and Manly 348

3. Practical and Timely 352

4. Satirical and Figurative 355

5. Lack of Literary I'inish 358

CHAPTER VIII.

THE PEOSE STYLE OF CHARLES LAJMB.

Defects of his Style 364

1. Diction and Structure 364

2. Absence of Logical Development 365

3. Want of Permanent Literary Effect 368

1. English Character and Spirit 369

2. Humorous Element 371

3. Naturalness and Flexibility 375

4. Sympathetic Tenderness 378

5. Critical Element 380

Defects of his Style as CRincAL 384

1. Want of Lnpartiality 384

2. Want of Comprehensiveness 384

CHAPTER IX.

THE PROSE STYLE OF THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY.

His Prose Works 387

Popular Estimate of His Prose Sttlb 388 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS,

Ai^AiiTsis OF HIS Style 390

1. Skill in Narrative and Descriptive Writing . . .390

2. Excellence of Sentence Structure 398

3. Literary Personality 405

Chiep Defects 408

1. Want of Intellectual Depth and Yigor , . . . 408

2. Want of Etliical Earnestness and Aim .... 413 Pbesent and PnosPECTr^E Eank of his Style .... 414

CHAPTER X.

THE PEOSE STYLE OF THOMAS DE QUINCEY.

BlOGEAPHICAL SkETCH 417

Miscellaneous Chaeacter of his Works 417

1. Variety and Flexibility 419

2. The English Element 420

3. Intellectual Character , . . . 423

4. Impassioned Vigor 429

5. Humor and Satire 433

6. Pictorial and Artistic Power 435

Alleged Defects 437

1. The Want of Full Discussion of Ideas . . . .437

2. Errors of Diction, Sentence, and Moral Force . . 440

CHAPTER XL THE PEOSE STYLE OF CHARLES DICKENS.

BTOGRA.PHICAL SkETCH 444

Prose Fiction as a Form 444

His Prose Vv orks 446

Prominent Features of his Prose Style 449

Merits 449

1. Delineative and Dramatic Power 449

2. Pathos . 454

INTRODUCTION.

Chapter I. English Peose Feom Bede To The Cheonicle

The exact historical period covered by this division of our earlier prose as distinct from poetry may be said to extend from 673 a.d. — the year of the birth of Bede — to 1154 A. D. — the year of the close of The Chronicle. Within these limits, the four prominent centres of prose writing were Yarrow, York, Winchester and Abingdon. The four prominent prose writers were Bede, Alfred and the Aelfrics, representing, respectively, the geographical centres mentioned. The earliest specimens of First- English Prose were, undoubtedly, the collections of the Laws in the seventh century, by Ethelbert, Hlothere' and Eadric, Kings of Kent; by Ine, King of Wessex, in the same century; by later writers, also, such as Ecgbert of York, and so on to Alfred the Great who in his carefully compiled codes laid the basis of a wise Christian legislation at the very opening of our literature. Connecting his code with that of Moses and with the broader one of Christ and the apostles he adds — *' Those wliich I met either of Ine's day my kinsman, or Aethelbert's who first received baptism among the English race, that seemed to me rightest, I have here gathered and rejected the others." Then follows,

IQ ENGLISH PROSE.

The Chronicle, compiled, partly,, by Alfred, and partly, by Plegimund and other less known annalists. This collection, unimportant as it is in itselt or in its literary character, is invaluable in its historical and civil bearings. Beginning long before the Conquest, it runs nearly a century beyond it and thus serves to cherish the First-English spirit and language. As the earliest history of any Teutonic people in a Teutonic language, and with the Laws the earliest form of English Prose, it has an interest and value quite aside from its contents. Alfred did for it what Chaucer did for English Poetry. He made it national, so that from his time to the death of Stephen it was the people's authority. Above all, it was English clear and clean and lies back of all later English as a basis and guide. As far, therefore, as mere time is concerned, there are nearly five centuries included in this earliest prose era, a pei-iod fully as long as that from The Chronicle to Bacon's Essays, and longer by far than that from Bacon to Carlyle. In noting more specifically the English Prose of this period, there is, first, the unfinished translation of St. John's Gospel by Bede. There is, also, Alfred's translation of Orosius, a kind of manual of general history. Alfred's translation of Boethius' De Consolatione Philosophiae is especially memorable. In . this, the classical and the English spirit, the speculative and the practical, are happily combined, while Christian sentiments are always enforced as superior to those of a pagan philosophy. It is by way of eminence that one of Alfred's productions in which his great and generous English heart reveals itself most fully. \Ye know of no work of Pre-Eeformation times in which there is found a purer ethical teach-

BEDE TO THE CHRONfCLE, 17

ing, a more conciliatory spirit or a cleaner prose style. Then follows his translation of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of Eiigland, a work which Alfred selected, partly, to give to the people the benefit of its contents and, partly, because of its intensely English character behind and below its foreign dress. He, also, translated Gregory's Pastoral Care — a kind of Homiletical hand-book for Churchmen. Most ot it reads as an affectionate pastoral letter. It is full of interest from the fact that Gregory, its author, was the one who sent the first missionaries from Eome to Kent; also, because Augustine, who headed this movement, brought the original work with him to England, and because in it he speaks sorrowfully of that olden time when piety and English learning flourished together, and yet hopefully, in that better days seemed to be dawning. Such was the noble work of Alfred as our first great prose writer. If it be said that his work was mainly that of the compiler, translator and paraphrast rather than that of a creative author, it is to be answered, that the original additions that he made, especially, to Orosius and Boethius, were so numerous and valuable that he may be said to have combined the work of an independent author with that of a commentator. As to his style, it has all the best qualities that mark the First-English character, — plainness, directness, spirit, ethical gravity and manliness. In these particulars he may be compared with English writers of any subsequent epoch.

Nor must it be forgotten that no modern translator of Latin into English has had anything like the difHculties of structure and style before him that Alfred had when he aimed to render a compact classical tongue into the more flexible English of his time. From the pen of Aelfricthe Grammarian we have, The Homilies, The Colloquy, Lives of Saints, a partial translation of Old Testament Scriptures, with a number of manuals and less important works. Equally clear in his prose with Alfred and even more poetic and finished, he had to a less degree that masculine vigor that marked the king. Most of his prose is so alliterative as to mar its character and, yet, what he lacks in solidity he supplies in a more modern, lucid and facile expression. A later and less renowned Aelfric — Aelfric Bata — enlarged The Colloquy of his superior. V As far, therefore, as the prose authors themselves are concerned, they are seen to be but few in number, not exceeding a half dozen at the most. It might lead to serious error, however, should it be supposed that the smallness of the number marked the real character and results of the work accomplished in this province. Nor must the principle be too strongly j)ressed that in this first era, if matters be reduced to their last analysis, we have but little of native, genuine English. It is perfectly true that Bede wrote nearly all that he wrote in Latin ; that Alcuin the pupil of Bede and the teacher of Charlemagne, re-edited the old classic authors, and in his Commentaries, Capitularies and ethical treatises, used the language of the Church of Rome. It is also true that each of the Aelfrics was in a sense an Anglo-Latin author and that Alfred was the only writer of First- English Prose who can with full truthfulness be said to have given us an example of prose in " English Undefiled." This is all correct, and yet we are to bear in mind that beneath the letter is the spirit and behind the text is the man; so that of such an author as

BEDE TO THE CHRONICLE, 19

Bede, Morley maj^ justly say — "He leads the line of English Prose Writers," — and Mr. Brooke may state of Aelfric the Grammarian, " that he wrote a simple, literary English." The indebtedness of Modern- English Prose to the English Prose of this first era, in so far as actual subject-matter is concerned, is not large, nor could it naturally be expected to be. It is, nevertheless, a real indebtedness, and to overlook it as some ultra modern writers have done, is as untrue to literary history as it is to the genius of the English people. Such an epoch is not to be measured simply by what it has left in the form of visible prose product, but also by what it made possible for succeeding ages to accomplish and to accomplish more easily. The study of our first prose is, indeed, now a matter of etymological rather than of purely literary benefit. Still, in and through such philological work the modern English student is continually noting traces and glimpses of literary value, and is all the better prepared by such study for the full appreciation of those later prose eras which have thus been heralded and hastened. Among the four or five prose authors already mentioned as illustrating in their writings more or less of the English element, King Alfred, as has been stated, is the only one whose prose is outand-out English. He is thus, not only the founder of English Prose historically viewed, but the one First- English Prose Writer with whom above all others the modern English student should be thoroughly conversant.

Intensely English in spirit and mission, all that he said and wrote was in his birth-tongue, and he lived mainly to found and foster a home literature. Zealous as he was in the line of literary service and political reform, his chief love was in the sphere of the home speech. "There are only a few," he says, *'on this side of the Humber who can understand the divine service or even translate a Latin letter into English; and I believe not many on the other side of the Humber. There are so few, indeed, that I cannot remember one south of the Thames when I began to reign." This was his constant lament, and it was the ruling passion of his life to redeem the land from such disgrace. To this end, he encouraged English scholars, founded English scliools, wrote educational treatises, traveled from place to place, and organized the literary work of the country. It is to be emphasized, here, that what he wrote, he wrote in tlie form of prose as best adapted to the needs of the hour, and his prose was always mature, thoughtful and substantial. As Milton after him, he had no liking for frivolities. He wrote as he lived — for the weal of the people. It may safely be questioned wiiether from the ninth century to the present time there has been any prose writer of English who has better understood his age than Alfred did his, or one who has done more for his age in the line of literary advance than did Alfred for his. Hence in any historical and literary study of Modern-English Prose we are compelled to go back to the writings and spirit of Alfred as a necessary introduction. The meaning of his name — one skilled in council — will express the character of liis mission

If we inquire as to the Characteristics of First- English Prose, they may be stated as — Brevity, Sincerity, Directness, Vigor and Ethical Earnestness. What they said and penned they expressed in sentences short, frank, pointed, forceful and serious.

BEDE TO THE CHRONICLE. 21

Thoy called things by their right names; said just wliat they meant, nothing less, nothing more, nothing different; spoke "right on" as "plain, blunt men," in terse, pithy and homely Englisli, with no other purpose than to be understood and felt. Just here is seen the great difference between our first prose and first poetry. The verse abounds in abrupt inversion, in paraphrase, excessive apposition, restatement and circuitous forms. In fact, these are its main "marks and make it at times so difficult as to defy a clear rendering. There is, perhaps, no language in which there is such a wide difference as to structure and consequent difficulty between the prose and the verse, as in First-English. This difference, fortunately, is all in favor of the prose. It is probable that there is no period of Modern-English Prose in v^hich there is so little waste of words in the expression of thought as in this earliest one. Little is to be said, however, as to grace or finish of structure in the prose. It was as devoid of that quality, as it was of moral looseness. With the exception, however, of grace and descriptive ease, we find in the prose all the higher elements of a good literary product. In an age so wide-mouthed as the present, when fluency and ideas are so often in the inverse ratio, something is still to be learned, perchance, of this olden time, when men spoke and wrote for a purpose and were sparing of their words.

As to the morcil quality of the prose, it should not be forgotten that in addition to the homilies. Christian biographies, commentaries and religious treatises of the time, each of the prominent prose writers — Bede, Alfred and Aelfric — translated larger or smaller portions of the Scriptures into the common speech of the people. Morley, in his " Illustrations of English Religion," has very naturally dwelt iipon such striking facts as these, and despite the cynical allusions of Mr. Taine and the liberal school, they can scarcely be ignored.

Before leaving this opening era, it is of interest to inquire as to the agencies which were at work for and against the development of a native English Prose.

As to those which were adverse, there were two of special prominence. One is found in the prevalence and bitterness of civil strife somewhat deepened by foreign wars. It is a matter of no small surprise that any degree of literary life could have been maintained in such an era and that Alfred could have done much of his best work in prose with the sword in one hand and the pen in the other. As the Jews in the days of Nehemiah, they must perforce, build and battle at the same time. Such a condition of things is a practical explanation of the moral sobriety of the prose, and a full explanation of its fragmentary^ character, its comparatively small amount, and the narrow range of subjects it includes. Literary art needed a more congenial soil in" which to take root and produce the best fruitage. The temple of letters as that of Jehovah at Jerusalem must be built in times of peace. A further adverse agency is visible in the prevalence of the Latin as the vernacular of the island after the establishment of Rome's civil and ecclesiastical power. It is not tlie purpose, here, to arraign the Latin at the English bar to answer for this, or to diminish in one iota that large measure of benefit which has accrued to England and the English tongue from this kindred speech.

BEDE TO THE CHRONICLE. 23

It is \x\ point, however, to state that by reason of this Eornan and Romish supremacy it was a much more difficult matter for the native language to make any headway or the native authors to found a native literature. The very word which meant, Latin — /ede?2^-also meant language, as if the two things were identical. So potent was this influence that as has been seen, Bede and others yielded to it. Aelfric and others compromised on the interlinear method, and Alfred alone resisted and overcame it. Even this was somewhat due to the fact that he lived in the ninth century, when the Roman influence had diminished or was superseded by Danish and other less potent and pervasive agents. Anglo-Latin was the prevailing language; and had it not been for the unconquerable English spirit of these writers, their translations of Scripture into the folk-speech, the work of Alfred and of the compilers of The Chronicle, — the name of First-English as applied to this period would indeed be a misnomer. In asking for a statement of those agencies which were friendly to the ftn'roation of a home prose, attention must first be called to this innate and indomitable English spirit which demanded the preference of the native language to all foreign rivals; to the wise and loyal polic}^ of Alfred as a king, an author and a man; to the early opposition of the native Church to the order and doctrine of the Romish ; to the preparation of the Biblical and secular manuals in the vernacular; and, most of all, to those marked providential agencies at work separating this western home more and more distinctly from the traditions and teachings of eastern and continental Europe.

Even so cautious and critical an author as Ten Brinck, in closing his snrvey of this period writes — "The English Language had by that time reached a high degree of culture and aptitude for the purposes of prose writing.'* The spirit and drift of the age was after all Teutonic rather than South European. Hence the remark of Mgrley relative to the Anglo-Latin element — "They are English studies, English aspirations that we follow through the Latin Literature. The accident that use is made of a continental language leaves the native character unchanged." Even the Danish hordes that infested the land were pure Teutons, and it was not till the incoming of the Norman-French that this Teutonic impulse received any substantial check. First-English Prose, fragmentary and composite as it is, is after all, more English than it is anything else. In its spirit altogether English and so, to a good degree, in its letter and texture, it forms the opening chapter in that grand historic series which takes a new departure in the days of Elizabeth, and is even now in manifest expression before us. Bacon and Addison, Johnson and De Quincey would not have been what they are in English literary prose had it not been for these men of vigor who centuries before them did their pioneer and preparatory work. *' Thus even before the Norman Conquest there appeared phenomena in England," writes one, " presaging the Middle Age of English," — presaging, we may add, the Modern Age of English Speech and Letters. Such is the law of historical sequence as applied in the domain of language and literature.

CHAPTER IL

ENGLISH PROSE FROM THE CHRONICLE TO BACON.

The chronological limits of this period extend from the close of The Chronicle (1154), on through the death of Chancer (1400) to the full opening of the Modern English Period, in 1561 — the birth of Bacon. This period, it will be seen, is not as long by a century as that which preceded; and, yet, it represents, especially at the close of it, a list of authors and an amount of English prose product altogether superior to anything that had preceded it and quit© indispensable in its preparative relation to what was to follow. The general literary character of this period, both as to prose and poetry, is a matter of history. Discouraging as it is in sotne of its epochs and phases, it is interesting to note that niore attention is now given to this intervening period than at any previous epoch. German, English, and American scholars alike, represented by such men as ^laetzner, Ten Brinck and Brother Azarias are vjnng with each other in seeking the full explanation of that long literary decline which then prevailed, and also, in bringing into prominence any elements of promise that then lay concealed or but partially revealed. There is a true sense in which the difficulty of ascertaiiiiiig the real character of such eras marks the measure of their importance to the historical and literary student. The Norman Conquest of 1066, preceded by repeated Danish invasions, had done its transforming work, introducing a new system of civilization, a new language, in part, and a new spirit. To the older life of the times of Bede and x41fred these must altogether yield, or on the basis of compromise be adapted and adjusted.

In the nature of things and by the providential course of events, there was a kind of union of systems, each retaining cardinal characteristics of its own. The result was, The Middle- EngHsh Prose. In speaking of the agencies at work in the First-English Period against the development of a native English Prose, we mentioned Foreign Influence and Civil Strife. It is suggestive to note that these, in somewhat diiferent form and measure, are the obstacles at work in the Middle Period. In the early portion of the era — from its opening to Chaucer — the great opposing influence was the Norman- French. (Beginning early in the eleventh century and culminating in the year 1066, its influence is distinctly marked as far on as to the middle of the fourteenth century. The chief result as far as structure is concerned, was the change of English from an inflected to an uninflected language, and as to vocabulary, the introduction of a large number of foreign words. However true the theory may be, that this phonetic decay of English would have taken place in obedience to an inevitable tendency of language to simplify, it must, still, be conceded that such decay was greatly hastened by Norman influence. The result was that First-English gave place somewhat violently to another form of English, call it what we may. From this time on, it was all the more difficult for native writers to express their thoughts in native forms, or when so expressed, to have them accepted. > As in the earlier era, Anglo- Latin was the prevailing tongue, as used by Bede, so now, Anglo-Norman, as it is called, was the literary language with the old Latin influence largely remaining.