The cereals in America

Preface

As the title of this book suggests, the cereals have been treated principally with reference to their American environment, although valuable foreign data have often been included. This is especially true with reference to varieties, fertilization, culture, harvesting, production, use and marketing of these crops. It is not a monograph of experiment station literature. The limits of the work have made it impossible to include some valuable data. Moreover the author has deemed it his privilege to protect the reader by eliminating inconclusive and inconsequential data, which must of necessity accumulate in so large an enterprise as that represented by the various agencies for research in Agriculture. It is hoped, however, that the reader will find herein a fairly comprehensive, although concise, statement of experimental results as well as of farm methods relating to the cereals in America. Reference has usually been made to the station rather than to the individual for a number of reasons, the most important of which is that in the culture of these crops the location is frequently an important consideration. With few exceptions, the illustrations in this book have been drawn or re-drawn by C. W. Furlong or A. K. Dawson. The author wishes to express his grateful acknowledgment to those who have given him helpful suggestions, and especially to his secretary, Mr. C. C. Poindexter, B. S., O. S. U. 1903, for valuable assistance rendered.

VI PREFACE

TO INSTRUCTORS IN AGRONOMY :

The author recognizes the varying interest of the several States in crop production as well as the differences of curriculum and of facilities for instruction at the different agricultural colleges. He has tried to meet this rather wide requirement by a fairly full treatment of all the cereals, which will enable the Instructor to omit certain crops or certain portions of a particular crop. At the same time the collateral readings and copious page references to the original sources of information make it possible to enter into a more thorough study of any single crop or any special phase of that crop. The discussion of certain topics ordinarily not taught in the department of Agronomy has been put in smaller type for the benefit of the general reader. Cross reference is made to paragraphs in order to facilitate comparative study.

The method of treatment is in accordance with the recommendations of the Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.

In all courses of study involving the study of material objects it is important to recognize that the student should not only study about the thing, but he should study the thing itself. In Agronomy the importance of studying the crop in all its environments cannot be too strongly insisted upon. The ideal condition involves a study of the plant in the field. Unfortunately this is not always possible, since no systematic course of instruction can be planned that will conform with the season of crop growth and meet the exigencies of the weather. Practicums should be supplied that will as far as possible remedy this

PREFACE Vll

defect. Neither the substance nor the form of the practicums here proposed is vital. The Instructor can modify them to suit his needs or plan others along similar lines. Here again the author has included more than any single course would probably offer, in order that the Instructor may choose such as he requires or as his facilities may permit. The author is aware that the success of his attempt to put this subject into pedagodic form is far from perfect. He will, therefore, be grateful to Instructors in Agronomy if they will submit to him any criticisms or suggestions that may occur to them either as to subject matter or method of treatment.

THOMAS F. HUNT.

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., October i, 1904.

Chapter I. Classification And Choice Of Field Crops

PAGE

Agriculture ......... i

Horticulture ......... i

Field crops, p. 2 ; Number of cultivated species, p. 2 ; Classification, p. 3 ; Area and value of field crops in 1899 in U. S., p. 3 ; Cereals, p. 4 ; Grasses, p. 6 ; Legumes for hay and pasture, p. 6; Legumes for seeds, p. 7 ; Forage crops, p. 7 ; Tubers, p. 8 ; Roots, p. 8 ; Sugar plants, p. 8 ; Fiber plants, p. 9 ; Stimulants, p. 9 ; Medicinal and aromatic plants, p. 9 ; Miscellaneous crops, p. 9 ; Staple crops of the United States, p. 9; Character of field crops, p. 10.

Beginnings of Plant Culture . . . . . .10

Possibility of crop production, p. 10; Profitableness of a given crop, p. 1 1 ; Choice of crops, p. 1 1 ; Specialties, p. 12 ; General farming, p. 12. Practicum . . . . . . . . .12

Chapter II. Improvement Of Field Crops

Changes in Farm Crops 14

The Importance of Plant Breeding .... 14

Maize breeding farm, p. 1 5 ; Application of principle

CONTENTS delayed in plants, p. 15 ; Sex, p. 16 ; Difficulty of control, p. 16 ; Seed an embryo, p. 16.

Examples of Improvement or Modification in Plants . 17

Examples of definite improvement, p. 18.

Methods of Improvement . . . . . '19 Inducing variation, p. 19 ; Influence of environment, p. 19 ; Change of seed, p. 20 ; Crossing, p. 21 ; Selection, p. 2 1 ; Power of specific forms to reproduce themselves, p. 22 ; Importance of large numbers, p. 23.

Plant Breeder's Advantage 23

Chapter Iii.— Wheat

I. STRUCTURE.

Roots, p. 26 ; Culms, p. 27 ; Leaves, p. 29 ; Tillering, p. 29 ; Organs of reproduction, p. 30 ; The true flower, p. 3 1 ; The spikelet, p. 3 1 ; The spike, p. 32 ; The grain, p. ss ; The embryo, p. 34 ; The endosperm, p. 35 ; Aleurone layer, p. 35 ; The bran, p. 35 ; Physical properties, p. 37.

II. COMPOSITION.

Relation of Weight per Bushel to Nitrogen Content . 42

Influence of Environment on Composition of Grain , 44

CONTENTS Xi

Chapter Iv.— Wheat

I. BOTANICAL RELATIONS.

PAGE

Wheat Genus ........ 47

Species of wheat, p. 47 ; Einkorn, p. 48 ; Spelt, p. 49 ; Emmer, p. 49 ; Common wheat, p. 5 1 ; Club or square head wheat, p. 51 ; Poulard wheat, p. 52; Durum wheat, p. 52 ; Polish wheat, p. 54; Spring and winter wheat, p. 54.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES.

Importance of Variety . . . . . . -55

Best variety, p. 55 ; Variety names, p. 56; Pedigree wheat, p. 56; Number of varieties, p. 57 ; Variety characteristics, p. 57 ; Variety groups, p. 58. Desirable Qualities ....... 59

Score card, p. 60 ; Market classifications, p. 60 ; Soft winter varieties, p. 61 ; Hard winter varieties, p. 61 ; Hard spring varieties, p. 62 ; White varieties, p. 63.

III. IMPROVEMENT OF VARIETIES.

New Varieties ......... 63

Introduction of foreign varieties, p. 63 ; Improvement by selection, p. 63 ; Varieties through crossing, p. 64 ; Possibility of cross-fertilization, p. 64; Law, p. 65 ; Importance as a method of improvement, p. 65 ; Finding and testing new strains, p. 66.

CHAPTER v.— WHEAT

I. CLIMATE.

Conditions of Successful Wheat Culture . ... 68 Effect of climate upon geographical distribution,

Xii CONTENTS

PAGE

p. 68 ; Effect upon quality, p, 68 ; Effect upon

growth, p. 68.

Accumulation of Soil Constituents at Different Stages of

Winter Killing . . . . . . . -70

II. THE SOIL AND ITS AMENDMENTS.

Choice of Soil . . . . . . . .71

Effect of change of soil on yield, p. 72.

Use of Fertilizers . . . . . . . .72

Indirect fertilization, p. 73 ; Rotation, p. 74 ; Carriers of fertilizing constituents, p. 75; Relative importance of fertilizing constituents, p. 75 ; Amount of fertilizers, p. 76 ; Time and manner of applying fertilizers, p. 77.

Farm Manure 77

Mulching, p. 78.

III. CULTURAL METHODS.

Time of Plowing 79

Depth of plowing, p. 80 ; Preparing seed bed without plowing, p. 80.

Time of Sowing . . . . . . . .81

Depth of sowing, p. 8^ ; Drilling compared with broadcasting, p. 84 ; Quantity of seed per acre, p. 85 ; Influence of size of seed, p. 87 ; Treatment of seed, p. 89; Wheat seeding machinery, p. 90.

Cultivation .....*... 92

Rolling, p. 92.

CONTENTS XIU

Chapter Vi.— Wheat

I. WEEDS, FUNGOUS DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES.

PAGE

P-9S- Fungous Diseases ........ 96

Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat .... 98

Chinch bug, p. 99 ; Hessian fly, p. 100 ; Wheat bulb-worm, p. loi ; Wheat midge, p. loi ; Wheat plant-louse, p. 102.

Insects Injurious to Stored Grain . . . . .102 Granary weevil, p. 102 ; Rice weevil, p. 102 ; Angoumois grain moth, p. 102; Wolf moth, p. 102.

II. HARVESTING AND PRESERVATION.

Date of Harvesting . . . . . . .102

Stage of maturity on yield, p. 103 ; Influence of ripening upon composition, p. 104; Influence of shocking, p. 104 ; Method of shocking, p. 105.

Methods of Har\'esting . . . . . . .105

Self-rake reaper, p. 1 06 ; Self -binding harvester, p. 106; Header, p. 107; Combined harvester and thresher, p. 108.

XIV CONTENTS

Chapter Vii.— Wheat. I, Uses And Preparation For Use

PAGE

Food for domestic animals, p. 112; Source, amount and quality of flour, p. 113; Grades of flour, p. 115; Graham and wheat flour, p. 116; Amount of bread from flour, p. 117.

Milling Machinery . . . . . . .117

Purifier, p. 118.

By-products of Wheat . . . . . . .119

Composition of by-products, p. 119; Food value of by-products, p. 120.

Wheat Crop of the World . . . . . .121

Wheat crop of the United States, p, 122-, Progress of wheat production, p. 123 ; Center of wheat production, p. 124; Winter wheat and spring wheat, p. 124; Production of flour, p. 124; Consumption of wheat per capita, p. 125 ; Yield per acre, p. 126. Export of Wheat and Flour . . . . . .126

Imports of wheat, p. 128 ; Commercial grades, p. 128.

HI. HISTORY.

Original habitat, p. 130 ; Reasons for culture, p. 130. Practicums . . . . . . . . .131

Study of the spike of wheat, p. 131 ; Method of cross-fertilization, p. 131 ; Types of wheat, p. 131, Method of Describing Wheat Varieties . . . •133

Half -grown plant in field, p. 133 ; Mature plant in

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

field, p. 133 ; Mature dried plant in laboratory, p. 134; The grain, p. 134; Classification of varieties of common wheat, p. 135.

Relation of Color, Hardness, Size, Specific Gravity and

Contents of Gluten ...... 136

Quality of flour, p. 136.

CHAPTER Vni.— MAIZE.

I. STRUCTURE.

Name 138

Fodder, p. 138; Stover, p. 138; Silage, p. 138; Relationships, p. 138 ; Roots, p. 139 ; Culms, p. 141 ; Suckers, p. 142 ; Relation of grain to stover, p. 143; Inflorescence, p. 144; Tassel, p. 146; Silk, p. 146 ; Ear, p. 147 ; Position of the ear, p, 148 ; Characteristics of ear, p. 149; Terms descriptive of ear, p. 149; Two-eared varieties, p. 150; Barren stalks, p. 151.

Grain . . . . . . . . . » ^5^

Shape upon maturity, p. 152.

Chapter Ix.— Maize

I. STRUCTURE. (CONCLUDED).

II. COMPOSITION.

XVI

CONTENTS

Chapter X.— Maize. Classification And Varieties

PAGE

Pod maize, p. 164; Pop maize, p. 164; Flint maize, p. 166.

Dent Maize 169

Description of a good dent ear, p. 170 ; List of varieties of dent maize, p. 172; Classification of dent varieties, p. 179

Soft Maize 180

Number of Varieties . . . . . . .182

Varieties for silage, p. 182.

Comparative Yield of Dent and Flint Maize . . .184

Chapter Xi.— Maize. Improvement Of Varieties

Influence of current cross, p. 185; Degree of closebreeding, p. 187; Close breeding, p. 187; Detasseling, p. 188; Crossing, p. 190; Disposition to maintain types and' varieties, p. 190.

Breeding for Composition . . . . . .191

Breeding for fat, p. 191 ; Breeding for protein, p. 192 Breeding for starch, p. 192 ; Advantage of breeding for composition, p. 193; Disadvantage, p. 193 Methods of Breeding ....... 194

Breeding plat, p. 194; Field selection, p. 196; Field seed and breeding plat seed compared, p. 196. Vitality of Seed 197

CONTENTS XVll

Importance of testing vitality of seed, p. 197 ; Germination, p. 198; Treatment of seed, p. 198; Method of testing seed, p. 199; Seed from different parts of the ear, p. 200.

Chapter Xii.— Maize

I. CLIMATE.

Limited Distribution 202

Causes limiting distribution, p. 202 ; Influence of temperature, p. 204 ; Influence of climate upon habit of growth, p. 205 ; Influence of climate upon varieties, p. 205 ; Influence of climate upon composition, p. 206.

Need of Water ........ 207

Influence of rainfall, p. 207.

II. SOIL AND ITS AMENDMENTS.

Soil 208

Rotation, p. 209 ; Continuous cropping of maize, p. 209 ; Maintaining the crop producing power of the soil, p. 211 ; Influence of organic matter, p. 2 11 ; Application of stable manure, p. 212; Use of commercial fertilizers, p. 213; Relative importance of fertilizing constituents, p. 213; Methods of applying fertilizers, p. 214; Influence of season on efficiency of fertilizers, p. 214.

Indication of need of lime, p. 215; Application of lime, p. 216.

XVm CONTENTS

Chapter Xiii.— Maize. Cultural Methods

PAGE

Time of Plowing . . ..... 218

Depth of plowing, 219; Subsoiling, p. 221 ; Preparing ground after plowing, p. 221.

Depth of Planting . . . . . . . .223

Listing, p. 224; Time of planting, p. 226; Rate of planting, p. 227 ; Influence of rate of seeding upon composition, p. 229.

Chapter Xiv.— Maize. Cultural Methods. (concluded)

Planting in Hills or Drills . . . . . .231

Method of Distribution, p. 232 ; Distance apart of rows, p. 234; Intercultural tillage, p. 235 ; Injury due to weeds, p. 235 Effect of Stirring the Soil ...... 236

Root pruning, p. 236 ; Depth of cultivation, p. 237 ; Amount of cultivation, p. 239 ; Conservation of moisture, — influence due to stirring the soil, p. 240. Hilling and Bedding ....... 242

Chapter Xv.— Maize. Weeds, Fungous Diseases And Insect Enemies

Fungous Diseases . . . . . . . .244

CONTENTS XDC

PAGE

Maize smut, p. 244 ; Bacterial disease, p. 245 ; Bacterial disease of sweet maize, p. 246 ; Maize rust, p. 246; Leaf blight fungus, p. 246.

Wireworms, p. 247 ; Cutworms, p. 248 ; White grub, p. 248 ; Corn root worms, p. 249 ; Corn root webwonns, p. 249 ; Corn root louse, p. 249 ; Corn bill bug, p. 250; Corn ear-worm, p. 250; Stalk borers, p. 250.

Other Enemies 251

American blackbird, p. 251; The striped prairie squirrel, p. 251 ; Crow, p. 251.

Chapter Xvi.— Maize

I. HARVESTING AND PRESERVATION.

Storing, p. 252; Maize fodder, p. 253; Topping, p. 255; Pulling, p. 256; Silage, p. 257 ; The silo, p. 257; Losses in the silo, p. 258; Loss of maize fodder by curing, p. 259.

Time of Harvesting 259

Influence of maturity upon yield, p. 260 ; Upon composition, p. 261 ; Upon digestibility, p. 262 ; Upon feeding value, p. 263.

II. USES AND PREPARATION FOR USE.

Food for Domestic Animals ...... 264

Food for human consumption, p. 264 ; Manufactured products, p. 265 ; By-products, p. 265.

XX CONTENTS

Chapter Xvii.— Maize

I. PRODUCTION AND MARKETING.

PAGE

Maize Crop of the World 268

Maize in the United States, p. 269 ; Maize surplus States, p. 269 ; Center of maize production, p. 270 ; Production per population, p. 270 ; Yield per acre, p. 271 ; Export of maize, p. 271 ; Marketing, p. 272; Commercial grades, p. 273; Grade uniformity, p. 274.

II. HISTORY.

Value to colonists, p. 275 ; Introduction into Eastern continent, p. 275.

Description of maize plant, p. 276; The characters of the grain, p. 276 ; The characters of the ear, p. 277; Score card for dent maize, p. 278; Determination of commercial grades of maize, p. 279. Collateral Reading 279

Chapter Xviii.— Oats

I. STRUCTURE.

The plant, p. 280; Inflorescence, p. 281 ; Grain, p. 282; Relation of hull to kernel, p. 282; Weight per bushel, p. 282.

II. COMPOSITION.

CONTENTS XXI

III. VARIETIES.

Classification . . •. . . . . . 285

Value of different types and varieties, p. 287 ; Varieties of oats, p. 288 ; Improvement of varieties, p. 289 ; Introduction of new varieties, p. 289 ; Crossing, p. 291.

Chapter Xix.— Oats

I. CLIMATE.

Influence of Climate Upon Distribution .... 292 Upon distribution and yield, p. 292; Upon physical properties, p. 293 ; Need of water, p. 294.

II. SOIL AND ITS AMENDMENTS.

Rotation, p. 294; Influence of fertilizers, p. 295.

III. CULTURAL METHODS.

After treatment, p. 297; Influence of size of seed, p. 298; Influence of seed selection, p. 298; Seed selection, p. 299 ; Mixing varieties, p. 299 ; Sowing with other cereals, p. 300 ; Sowing with field peas, p, 300 ; Oats and rape, p. 301 ; Treatment of seed, p. 301 ; Rate of seeding, p. 302.

Time of Sowing in Southern States .... 303

Time of sowing in Northern States, p. 303.

Depth of Sowing ........ 304

Methods of sowing, p. 304 ; Method of fall sowing, P- 305-

XXll CONTENTS

PAGH

IV. WEEDS, FUNGOUS DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES.

Fungous diseases, p. 306 ; Insect enemies, p. 307.

Chapter Xx.— Oats

I. HARVESTING AND USES.

Time and Method of Harvesting ..... 308

Use 308

Oats for human food, p. 309 ; By-products, p. 310.

II. PRODUCTION AND MARKETING.

Oat Crop of the World 310

Oat crop of the United States, p. 310; Progress of oat production, p. 311; Yield per acre, p. 311; Center of production, p. 3 1 2 ; Export of oats, p. 312 ; Commercial grades, p. 313.

III. HISTORY.

Method of cross-fertilization, p. 314; Plant in the field, p. 314; Mature dried plant in laboratory, p. 315; Soil fertility in relation to oats, p. 3 1 5 ; Influence of size of seed on early stages of plant growth, p. 316; Influence of treatment of seed upon germination, p. 316.

Collateral Reading . . , . . . .317

Chapter Xxi.— Barley

I. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION.

CONTENTS ^^"^

PAGE

319 ; Hull, p. 320 ; Character of the endosperm, p. 320; Embryo, p. 321,

Composition ^^i

Weight per bushel, p. 321 ; Qualities for malting, p. 322; Germination, p. 323.

II, VARIETIES.

Two and six-rowed varieties, p. 325; Winter and spring varieties, p. 326; Varieties, p. 326; Breeding barley, p. 328.

III. CLIMATE AND SOIL.

Soil 329

Chapter Xxii.— Barley

I. CULTURAL METHODS.

Preparation of Seed Bed 33

Rate of seeding, p. 333 ; Time of sowing, p. 333 ; Seed selection, p. 334 ; Harvesting, p. 334; Threshing, p. 335-

II. FUNGOUS DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES.

Fungous Diseases ...••••* 33 Insect Enemies 33

III. USE.

Use for malting, p. 337 ; By-products, p. 337.

XXIV CONTENTS

IV. PRODUCTION AND MARKETING.

Barley Crop of the World 2>3^

Barley crop of the United States, p. 339 ; Barley crop of Canada, p. 339 ; Center of barley production, p. 340; Yield per acre, p. 340; Exports and imports, p. 340 ; Commercial grades, p. 340.

Practicums . , . . ' . . . . . 342 The plant, p. 342 ; The grain, p. 342 ; Soil fertility in relation to barley, p. 343.

Chapter Xxiii.— Rye

Enemies of rye, p. 349 ; Harvesting, p. 350; Use, p. 3 5 1 ; Rye as a soiling crop, p. 3 5 1 ; By-products,

Rye Crop of the World 353

Rye crop of the United States, p. 353 ; Center of production, p. 354 ; Yield per acre, p. 354 ; Commercial grades, p. 354.

Influence of specific gravity upon germination, p. 355 ; The study of the plant, p. 355.

CONTENTS XXV

Chapter Xxiv.— Rice

I. STRUCTURE AND VARIETIES.

PAGE

II. CLIMATE AND SOILS.

Soil 361

Laying Out the Plantation 363

Water supply, p. 364; Amount of water required,

III. CULTURAL METHODS.

Preparation of Seed Bed 366

IV. ENEMIES.

Chapter Xxv.— Rice

I. HARVESTING AND USE.

Time of Harvesting 372

Method of harvesting, p. 372; Threshing, p. 373; Use, p. 373; Preparation for use, p. 374; By-products, p. 376.

XXVI CONTENTS

PAGE

II. PRODUCTION AND MARKETING.

Production of Rice in the World . . . . .378 Production of rice in the United States, p. 378 ; Yield per acre, p. 379 ; Marketing, p. 379.

III. HISTORY.

Study of the rice plant, p. 381.

Chapter Xxvi.— Sorghum

I. STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES.

Name 382

Improvement of varieties, p. 386 ; Germination, p. 387.

II. CLIMATE AND SOIL.

Soil 388

Rotation, p. 388.

III. CULTURAL METHODS.

Preparation of Seed Bed . . . . . '389

Time of planting, p. 389 ; Rate of planting, p. 389 ;

Quantity of seed, p. 390 ; Method of planting, p.

391 ; Cultivation, p. 391.

Enemies of Sorghum ....... 392

Time of Harvesting . . . . . , , 392

CONTENTS XXVll

PAGE

Method of harvesting, p. 392 ; Threshing, p. 393 ; Method of harvesting broom corn, p. 393 ; Preparing broom corn for market, 393.

IV. USE AND PRODUCTION.

Danger from use, p. 395 ; Sorghum sugar, p. 395 ; Sorghum sirup, p. 396.

Sorghum Crop of the World ...... 397

Sorghum crop of the United States, p. 397 ; Yield per acre, p. 398.

Chapter Xxvii.— Buckwheat

Soil, p. 404; Rotation, p. 405 ; Green manuring, p. 405. Preparation of Seed Bed ...... 406

Description of buckwheat, p. 410; Relation of buckwheat to soil moisture, p. 410.

L

CLASSIFICATION AND CHOICE OF FIELD CROPS.

1. Agriculture. — The word agriculture comes from the two Latin words ager^ meaning field, and ciiltura, meaning cultivation. The strict meaning of the word is, therefore, the cultivation of the field. The sense in which the word is used, however, is quite varied. In its widest sense Agriculture consists in the production of plants and animals useful to man. It thus includes horticulture, forestry and animal husbandry. There are also certain manufacturing industries so closely and intimately connected with the production of the plants and animals that they are often included in agriculture, such as butter making, cheese making, sugar making, etc.

2. Horticulture. — The word horticulture comes from the two Latin words Jioj'tns, meaning enclosure, yard or garden, and cultura, meaning cultivation. Horticulture thus means the cultivation of the garden. The use of the word in this sense as well as the use of the word agriculture in the restricted sense of field agriculture is due to the character of Roman Husbandry during the time of the Roman Empire. The farm homestead in Roman agriculture was known as the "Villa." This farm steading was often an elaborate affair, including many buildings, and enclosures for the growth of fruits and vegetables. Outside the villa lay the extensive unenclosed areas on which were raised such crops as wheat, barley and some of the legumes. The tillage of unenclosed areas was known as agriculture, while the growth of the crops in the enclosed area was

1 The word acre has the same derivation and originally meant a field of arable or pasture land. The acre was limited to its present definite quantity by statutes of Edward I, Edward III, and Henry VIII.

known as horticulture. In American agriculture, with the enclosure of all farm lands and large production of animals on these enclosed areas, on the one hand, and the extension of the growth of fruits and vegetables to large areas, on the other hand, these distinctions somewhat disappear. In general, horticulture consists in the production of fruits and vegetables.

3. Agronomy. — Comes from two Greek words meaning the use of the fields. Agronomy as here used is restricted to the theory and practice of the production of farm crops. The object in plant production is to adapt the environment to the anatomy and physiology of the plant under cultivation with a view to securing crops which are best suited to the uses of man or the domestic animals. A full understanding of the means of adapting the environment to the development of the plant requires not only a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of plants, but it requires a knowledge of the air and soil and their means of modification. A study of plant physiology and a study of soils should, therefore, precede alike the study of either field or horticultural crops. Agronomy differs from botany in that botany deals with plants in the natural relationships and environments, while agronomy deals with man's relationship to plants.

4. Field Crops. — Under this head are generally included those crops that are cultivated on a somewhat extensive scale and are adapted to extensive rather than intensive methods of culture. There are exceptions to this rule. Sugar beets are classed with field crops, although the methods of culture are somewhat intensive, while all varieties of fruit are considered horticultural crops, although some kinds are now grown in large orchards and under conditions entirely removed from what was the case when the term horticulture was first applied.

5. Number of Cultivated Species. — De Candolle has recognized 1 98 species of cultivated plants native to the old world and forty-seven species of American origin, while there are three of uncertain origin, making the total number of cultivated species 248.^ He classifies the species as follows:

Cultivated for the underground parts Cultivated for the stems or leaves Cultivated for the flowers or their

envelopes ....

Cultivated for their fruits .

Cultivated for their seeds .

Cr^'ptogram cultivated for whole plant

Did World

New World

I

6. Classification. — No classification of the field crops of the United States can be made that will be entirely satisfactory, and even if it could be made so, would not remain satisfactory on account of new uses to which plants are constantly being put. The following classification will be used in this chapter, viz., cereals, grasses, legumes, tubers, roots, sugar plants, fibers, stimulants, medicinal and aromatic plants and miscellaneous crops. The following table shows the total area devoted to each of these classes of crops and their value as reported by census of 1900:

Area and Value of Field Crops in 1899, in U. S.

Cereals . , .

Hay and forage' Legumes for the seeds Tubers . .

Roots . .

Sugar plants Fiters . .

Stimulants

184,994,588

61,691,166

1,964,634

2,938,952

537,447

855,995

26,401,660

1,101,483

Value of crops

Value p'ir acre

^1,484,231,038

$ 8.02

487,125,685

7-93

28,308,228

14.36

98,387,614

33-47

19,876,200

36.98

51,367,685

60.01

390,879,985

11.02

56,993,003

> Origin of Cultivated Plants. By A. De Candolle, pp. 436-446.

2 Of the total area in hay and forage crops, 6.7 per cent was devoted to clover, 50.7 per cent to tame and cultivated grasses other than clover, 6.3 per cent to grasses cut green for hay, 5.1 per cent to forage crops, 3.4 per cent to alfalfa, 2.8 per cent to millet and Hungarian grasses and 25.1 per cent to wild, salt and prairie grass. — TweKth Census, Bui. 237, p. 14.

Medicinal and aromatic plants . . .

Miscellaneous plants .

Total in field crops

Total in vegetables and fruits

8,591

234,197 280,728,713

8,989,620

Value of crops Value per acre

252,006,611

$16.72

9.16

28.03

The total area in field and garden crops was approximately 290 million acres, while the total area of improved land was given at 415 million acres. This probably means that 125 million acres were in pasture. The area devoted to hay and pasture was therefore substantially the same as that given to the cereals. About one acre in thirty of the cultivated area was devoted to fruits and vegetables, while their value was about one-tenth that of the field crops.

Acreage of cereals, Census, 1900.

7. Cereals. — Any grass grown for its edible grain is called a cereal. The term is applied both to the plant as a whole and to the grain itself. According to this definition, buckwheat is not a cereal. It is, however, generally so classed because (iie seed is used in the same manner as the true cereals.

1 Refers to broom com and hops.

CLASSIFICATION AND CHOICE OF FIKLD CROPS 5

The six great cereals of the world are wheat, rye, barley, maize, oats and rice. In addition .to these the seed of the millet, or non-saccharine sorghum, is used largely by the peoples of southern Asia.

lmpfovei»reii

/6':

m

/ffiHt f l'»o

Hi i

A m r i

—

^ y

■1

__; PopuUtio

The relative Increase in population and production of cereals during 50 years.

In all ages and in all countries the cereals have occupied the bulk of the cultivated area and have formed the principal ingredient in the dietary of the people, as well as forming an important part of the food of domestic animals. Rye is the leading cereal of northern Europe and barley of southern Europe, while rice is the leading cereal of Asia. In the United States 'the three just mentioned occupy a minor place, while maize, wheat and oats occupy by far the largest part of the cultivated area. The following table shows the proportion of the area of each cereal to all the cereals raised in the United States in 1899:^

1 Twelfth Census. Vol. VI, p. 14.

Maize Wheat Oats .

Barley Rye .

Buckwheat Kafir corn Rice

51-3

28.4

8. Grasses. — The area devoted to pasture, hay and forage crops in the United States is greater than that devoted to any other single crop, and the product is of greater value than any other. This, however, includes some of the legumes which are used for pasture, hay or forage.

There are about 3500 known species of true grasses, divided into about 300 genera. In the United States there are now known to be about 1380 species (1275 native and 105 introduced), divided among 165 genera (140 native and 25 introduced). W. J. Beal has described 809 native species and 103 exotic species.^