A tableau of French literature during the eighteenth century

Preface

TO

THE THIRD EDITION,

WRITTEN IN 1822.

It is now nearly twenty years since the French Institute proposed, as a prize subject, " A Literary Tableau of the Eighteenth Century/ 1 Its manifest intention was, that in forming a list of the great names belonging to that era, the competitors should be confined to a strictly critical work. They had, therefore, not only to examine the literary taste of the century just finished, but it was further necessary to compare it, in this respect, with anterior times, and to discover what new forms the powers of thought had adopted. a 2

Thus i u wed, the subject becami

The competition remained open for many years: at length, the prize was obtained by two very dislished writers, (M. Jay and M, Fabre,) who, Bning themselves within the terms of the prowrote sufficient to prove that they would willingly haw extended the picture. In truth, it hard to confine, to a mere literary discussion, the examination of a host of witnesses in the I h of human intellect, at a moment when that ch had become so rapid and so fertile in great nts.

Without doubt, we may apply here the words of illustrious academician, spoken the following , in the bosom of that assembly in which he about to take his place.

" Other times, other manners. Inheritors of a aceable years, our happy forewere abh to give themselves up to discus-

19 purely academical, which proves no less tl

its than then- happiness. But we, the unfortunate I storm, have no longer that. enjoy so perfect a calm, a different course. The man

PREFACE. V

has taken place of the academician ; and, deprived of the writings of those who could prove its vanity, we only see through this strong conviction the greater evidence of our adversity.

" What ! after a revolution, which, in a few years, made us survey the events of many centuries, shall we forbid the writer all moral reflections ; shall vn prohibit him from examining the serious side of affairs ; shall he pass a frivolous life, occupied in vrrammatical cavils upon rules of syntax, and insignificant sentences of no moment ; shall he grow old in the swaddling-clothes of his cradle ; shall he never, while he lives, exhibit the brow furrowed by long toil, by grave thoughts, and often by manly griefs, which add to a man's greatness ?

" What, then, shall be the important cares that will render his hairs grey ? — The miserable anxieties of self-love, and the trifling occupations of childish pastimes.

The work, of which we give a new edition, was composed at first for the competition ; but the author, perceiving that he had not the talent necessary to illustrate such a subject within such confined

* Speech, on the admittance of M. de Chateaubriand.

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limits aother plan, and sought to unite

ature with the state of society — a point of which Beemed to him the more desirable, inasmuch as literature had never been thus treated ►re.

Under an absok rnment, where each body

v class of the nation, find themprived of their legitimate part in the regui of public affairs, literature, by constraint, becomes an organ of opinion, an element of the poli; I it ut ion. In default of regular insti- \

tutions, literature becomes one. So, under the I power of a dominant clergy, trembling before a \ controversy so glorious and salutary for the church, philosophy, having no further communion with religion, became atheistical.

Thus the interests of society, instead of incorpond communicating to each other perpetual life — a vigour unceasingly renewed — had been every day undermined and destroyed at their very roots, d as .1 dreadful decay had been the consequence of the unjust and unreasonable position of things under a government which nothing could enlighten nor imp had been considered the

PREFACE. Vll

means whereby its only visible enemy had wrought its ruin.

It was wanting that support that the edifice fell ; and yet the disaster was ascribed to that voice which itself had stifled. It is important, therefore, to shew that the course of genius had not been an accidental circumstance, which one can blame or deplore, but that it had reference to the internal constitution of France. The author of this outline discovers in literature only the symptoms of the common malady, the signs of dissolution ; and will endeavour to consider this peculiar point of a question so extended.

Doubtless, it had been more agreeable and more instructive to settle freely upon the whole question, and to treat historically of the government of France during the eighteenth century : it would have been seeking the evil at its source. If, in pursuing the enquiry, one had had to accuse the guilty, it had certainly been those men who, having disposed of power, had had more influence, and, consequently, more responsibility. If, on the contrary, it were seen that those also had been merely under the yoke of necessity, then it would have dful i" have shewn equal indulge them as to others. But, . sperience, and knowledge, frhich an enterprise lofty required ; it yet would have had something to blame in seeking to paint the vices of an which had been chastened by so direful a catastrophe. It would have been to disturb the ashes . 1 1 smoking. Besides, during times of political discord, various interests and opinions take >ng a form, and become so personal,

that one can judge but little without offend and general reflections are sometimes

gh they had been connected with tin

nanus of individuals. So despotic power, which,

time, suppressed party, and suspended con-

l, would not allow the opportunity of political

I i oversy.

It was another thing when the examination of the of the eighteenth century might become aeral discussion.

When an open opinion upon politics was inter-

• vru an examination of the rights and the Eiation in bygone times, was forbidden ; it was under the transparent veil of literary polemics that envy, hatred and malice, con-

PREFACE. IX

tinned to manifest themselves. The opinions and interests united with the ancient order, with the freedom taken by absolute power, attacked this literature as the only cause of the Revolution ; while, on the contrary, the principles and interests belonging to the new order of things, thinking that liberty was the best token of security to institutions and civil rights, defended this literature with all its power. To carry back the question where it really was, and to discuss both literature and politics, became an act of freedom ; it was calling things by their right names, and dispensing a right to be impartial. In shewing that letters had been conformed to the state of society, one could, without injustice, include in the blame those who would not admit such recognition ; and, in divesting oneself of a factitious and superstitious respect for the administration which had governed France till the Revolution, and saying frankly that it had been iniquitous and frivolous ; one is equally authorized to say that it had been attacked in a manner quite as frivolous and a thousand times more iniquitously. Such was the spirit in which this work was projected. The author was then young, too young, perhaps, for such a sub-

I PREFACE.

But in reviewing now that which was written in times bo different to the present epoch, he may be permitted to say that he experiences great taction in being able to reprint the same statements as then expressed. Above all, there seems to him little difference in the essential character of a passing and transient dominion, whatever be lat or its fallacy.

A man with some intelligence, who may have the spirit of his times, with talent that he may display, may serve as a docile instrument, and, having neither power nor interest in change, will not alter his course. When a nation has been so completely dissolved and renewed, it is not in the power of a man's hand or of his own will to reconstitute ; for when social order cannot be reiblished hut by a new agreement of the citizens among themselves, upon new ideas relative to proi> neither legislator nor conqueror who can flatter himself to lay the foundation suddenly that which is perhaps the work of time, viz. civil order without violence, and a calm without oppres- Absolute power, which was for the time iblishedj was then nothing more than a delay,

PREFACE. XI

of the development and regular classification of the real elements of society.

What are the modes, fashions, institutions, manners, ideas, which should form the actual conflict, and compose the moral constitution of civilized people ? This was the question that the author put to himself on finishing the work. He could repeat that question now ; though in truth it would be vain to expect a prompt solution of so great a difficulty.

Who could hope to see the world on a given day assume a new aspect ? It acts not by its knowledge whether more or less right should be granted to the citizen — if more or less security should be taken against the abuses and incapacity of governors ; it acts not even by learning whether the remembrances and affections attached to the ancien regime shall have a greater share in the government than the remembrances and affections invariably belonging to the present state of things. These are, indeed, formidable difficulties, able to produce again new convulsions and equally prevent the desired denouement. But, perhaps, there are more fundamental causes, that one cannot

\ii n;rr.\i

help regarding with an eye of fear. It seems that

ie may never appear, and that our situation be unknown ami unheard of in the history of the times.

Ever in truth is it to happen that all power, all \1 pre-eminence (which are the indispensable i is to establish order in a nation, even when order is built upon reason and justice), can lenly be annihilated and forgotten ? Ever is it to happen that the only title to promotion and maintenance may have' been real merit, utility, courage, influence ; that they may have had to force their way painfully through all the sions of men ? Ever is the principle of authority to be seen stripped of all previous sanction, deprived of all precedent, submitting to a daily examination, controlled by every private intei nor imposing by any illusion ? Can the system of power overcome the evil propensities of the human heart ; <uhdue envy which never can bear nee the clamor of personal interest ; furnish employment to the active ; food to the imagination ; i icious ; convince

ell as tli.' enlightened; and the the population at the same time with tin

PREFACE. XU1 elite among the citizens? In a word, society being dissolved, can it, knowing the cause, ever recompose itself ? Does it contain within itself the germ of social order ? Can it there throw forth roots, grow, and become fertile ? There have been years when one might have said to oneself sorrowfully, " Is it then despotism which shall solve the problem ? Can it be that which has subdued us by force, reduced and subjugated the imagination, broken the will, weakened the sentiment, and reduced it to a mere personal interest? Are nations only destined to find an uncertain and precarious calm under their degrading vicissitude ? Is order nothing more than the apathy of the people who allow it, — mute spectators pushed onwards like a vile drove by one power or another ? And whether revolutions commence in the bosom of the palace, or in the camp of the soldier, do they cease to be calamities ? This or that equally exclude citizens from all direct interference in the discussion of their public affairs."

The prosperity and success of the Imperial government were able to create fears, but less again than the state of France, the weariness of spirit, and the superstitious fancy for equality so favour-

\iv PREFACE.

able to absolute 4 power. The chief basis of despotism was above all, the security with which all those who bad brought about the Revolution re-

1 under a dominion created by themselves; and to which they were bound by private rather thai) ral interest.

The restoration came to raise better hopes in se who had little faith in the favours of absolute power. Then a new combination presented If. One part seeing the re-appearance of the royal family, who, by their name, seemed to call to mind the old state of society, and perceivthe same time, that no part of the wreck could be recovered ; that it had no means of reunion to place them in their former situation ; that manners, ideas, the general current remained the same; many of their illusions were dissipated, many mad hopes vanished ; they began to form some force of things, and to consider the Revolution no more as an accident, or the work of this or thai individual. On the other hand, all the pride and interests which had their protection under the new form of things, those who were in voluntary accomplices of an absolute authority, had an indispensable lack of justice, lived

PREFACE. XV

under mistrust and precaution, and implored liberty instead of dwelling in the community with power.

This situation brings us to the trials we have made, during the late years, of a deliberate and popular form of government ; and so far as this, in regulations and mechanism, it has not badly succeeded. In spite of the vacillations, more harassing to the thoughtful mind than to the mass of population, France could enjoy peace and a growing prosperity.

But notwithstanding one must say, with a doubt less painful, indeed, than under the preceding government, that nothing yet gives us the idea of firmness nor of that which may be. The forms of a government are nothing, if they are not the expression of the manners, the belief, the confidence of a people. It must have a soul for all material causes, and that soul is not yet come to animate our new political machine. That enlightened minds, a certain elite of the nation, have given themselves up to the inquiry, only to surrender themselves to the rational conviction, that free discussion may not be forbidden to any ; but that there must be a sort of stamp for the

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current opinions, habits, and affections, that maybe i on trust throughout the country. That

3 imperative that there be authorities and pre-eminence ted with some moral force; but

that tliey may not make daily experiment of the reality of their power.

We are vet far from this moral restoration, and perhaps the present generation is not destined t;>

its accomplishment ; above all, if new troubles iin, there will be a total overthrow of opinions. At this moment, in spite of much noise and win. we are torn by doubts; many there

who try to make converts by the violence clamour. No one is sure that right forms the ; of hi , in, One 18 so oi ived by men

that one would assert one's opinion —

It is to tl [instance we owe the: repose we

i a surprised to cum

i becomes a witness to the St It prait petus to be given it.

Jt Bi the route it ought to travel. It has

ban the mutable d i' human

lost its credit; it re, when tociatiens shall - [

PREFACE. XV11

been created. It is this manner of viewing events and their results, which was at the time a reproach to the author. He was taxed with fatalism. He cannot admit the imputation. All his fatalism consists in his best efforts to find out the union of effects and causes, and the connection of the details with the whole. In this inquiry the idea results, that when communications between men become easy, rapid, and vast, the influence of isolated causes is less; and that general causes are more to be considered. By that, also, individuals are less important, and their actions more unperceived.

One can but conclude, then, that it only depends upon the will or the conduct of some men, " to exercise a decided and lively influence "* upon their nation and times. If they are powerful, and suited to the times, a noble task invites their performance. Knowledge of the times present, skill in its spirit and tendency, has always constituted, and will constitute more than ever the genius of politics. Instead of making use of power, as we have seen, to put in commotion a whole generation,

* See the article from Madame de Stael — Note at the end. a

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■\erstrain its activity and intoxicate its imagination, and give the desire of acquiring more than it can keep ; it should unravel calm and reasonable desires, moderate views, protect the salutary principles of the age, and give them force and efficacy; in a word y rule and uphold; — that is all that is possible ; then associations shall be formed; power shall be established and remain ; opinions shall become sincere and constant.

In effect human nature cannot, at any time, be disinherited of the faculties which have been given to it for justice, truth, religion, humanity; it should only cultivate these, and not excite the passions which are opposed to them. It is for this men try their utmost, who ascribe exclusively the exercise of social virtues to certain forms, to a certain language, to certain reminiscences of such and such association of individuals. Thus making the most respectable names an offensive means, — a vehicle of insult, — an instrument employed for i ml interests.

Impartiality, with which an author is reproached, fa not then so culpable. "What," it has been said, " can one be impartial between good and evil, be-

PREFACE. XIX

tween the just and the unjust ?" But which are the parties who have insolently and absurdly pretended to possess and appropriate exclusively the good and the just, and who will not that we examine even on which side are the right and the wrong ? Which are the authorities who hope to overcome the spirit of revolt, and announce their approach, by exacting obedience, without pointing out the means of obtaining justice ? Are they not precisely those who produced the great seditions of the eighteenth century ? Is it not that which remains a problem ? The philosophers of that century, far from meriting either all the blame or the praise that has been \ bestowed upon them, only obeyed a common movement, without foreseeing, without even desiring any positive result. It is not useless to show that the edifice, the object of their regrets is fallen a little nearer to its level ; that it has been sapped and shaken by various opinions and various influences ; by those, even, which seemed the most contradictory ; and that there is nothing of life nor solidity to draw from this dispersed wreck. It is not by a culpable indifference nor an apathetical resignation, that it must be said, " that which is, is;" a2

11 PREFACE.

it is from the deepest conviction that it is bettei to make etlorN to ameliorate a situation by reetnd good order, than vainly attempt to hazard all, by overturning every principle at itt foundation.

AN

ANALYSIS OF THE CHAPTERS.

CHAPTER I.— page 1.

Important changes in human affairs at close of eighteenth and beginning of nineteenth centuries — Causes that mostly overthrow empires — Until its last years the eighteenth century (in France) not particularly fertile in events — Progress of intellect — French opinions charged with causing revolution — Incidents tending to increase knowledge — Causes and effects — Fluctuations that conduct nations to their decrepitude — Party spirits reviewing past events perpetuate cabals — Appearances to an impartial observer — Symptoms of a universal malady met with in French authors of the era — Allusions to St. Bartholomew's day, and the massacres of September — Disturbances during sixteenth century — Men of letters at that period devoted to their studies — Literature not then in the ways of the world — Ennobled the leisure of a few till domination of Cardinal .Richelieu — Minority of Louis XIV. — Revolts during ministry of Cardinal Mazarin not fatal to royalty — Result of factions of

XXII AN ANAL\s|s

La Fronde — Aid from tin- people implored by all parties in MIOD Btepi taken by Louis XIV. on Ins majority, to reoider among bit subjects — Effects of Cardinal Richelieu's violent government destroyed — Writers obeying authority, but not seeking to please it, maintained the greater part of their independence — Boldness and freedom of the first race of celebrated writers illustrated by Balzac, Corneille, Mlzeray, St. R6al, Lamothe Levayer — Style of heroes of La Fronde met with in Charleval, St. 1'viemont, Hamilton, Cardinal Retz, Pascal and Arnaud — Moliere, Racine and Britannicus show traces in their first works — Splendor of Louis XIV. 's reign — clouded by his misfortunes and his faults — persecuted protestants — effects of his immoral example spread throughout all ranks — Conversation of women brought on a frivolity, since then increased — Lightness of piinciples and religious doubts — Philippe of Orleans — Mild and tolerant virtue of F6nedon — disgraced and almost persecuted — His pupil an animated censurer of the monarch's conduct — ill received by him — Eloquence of Massillon and Bossuet contrasted — Judicious Fleury — His enlightened love of antiquity — Rollin, interesting historian — D'Aguesseau fine model of a magistrate — After these writers, literature felt a marked influence from society.

CHAPTER II. — page 21.

Letters not immediately affected by morals — Campistron and

Other! imitated Racine — Comedy more vigour — Reynard, Dan -

, tnd Le Sage, depicted folly and features of society —

it of Moliere — Daniel, historian, compared with M6zeray —

It — Spirit shown by reformers — exiles by revocation of

edict of Nantes — Scepticism of Bayle — Nothing particularly

OF THE CHAPTERS. XXill

original at this period except in tragedies of Crebillon — useless attempts made to place him on a level with Voltaire — No lyric poet after Malherbe — A lyric poet necessary to complete list of celebrated writers in the eighteenth century — Disadvantages in the language — Imitation of the ancients prejudicial to French lyrical composition — Imitation of Greece and Rome began in the sixteenth century — Nature gave place to Horace and Pindar

— Real circumstances modified impression — a mixed character in lyrical composition resulted — Greeks true to their own impulses — servile imitation of them pedantic and injurious — Achilles — Agamemnon — Pagan Gods not suited in celebrating modern events — Best compositions recount personal impressions

— Distinguished odes of Rousseau — His talent — Removed from severe school of Louis XIV. — Chaulieu, licentious poet — Society of the Temple — The Tournelles — Ninon — Grand-prior of Vendome — Chaulieu, to please two princes, jested at all restraints — Fontenelle united the two epochs together — blended gravity of one with tolerance of the other — Lamotte resembled him — embraced the cause Perault had sustained against Racine and Boileau — Literary doctrines — matters of doubt — Authority less influence — Religion a less curb — Knowledge extended — Some writers preserved their dignity — Others borne away by the mode — Literature no decided direction — Things in a state of crisis and change.

CHAPTER III.— page 34.

Voltaire — representative of ceniury — his wonderful powers

- wrote to please — early success — errors and contradictions

- somewhat of a courtier — wrote on serious subjects with irre-

verence — his \anity, pride, ami patronage — exiles, and condemnation of his works — his Mgtr — admiration of England

— Advantages of -overninrnt cannot he transplanted — The

■it's opinion openly professed — Voltaire's friendship with

and rich men — might have rendered his position

honourable — such powers of mind could have arrested progress

of threatening opinions — sometimes appreciated their danger —

lie's merit contrasted like corpse of Patrocles, by two oppo-

,'irties — his works discussed — Zaire, Ml rope, &c. Sec. —

a slave to passion and poetry — sometimes a declamator — Epic

poetry requires the free imagination of the primitive ages — such

produced Homer and Tasso — Circumstances favourable to

iEneid — Virgil and the Augustan court — Iliad and Odyssey —

Voltaire's fugitive poetry interprets his feelings from youth to old

age — their charm — As far from Ariosto as he was from Homer —

Character of Charles XII. suited to Voltaire's talent — Causes

why history of Louis XIV. not so interesting — Difficulties of a

historian — Ancient historians, less fettered — Xenophon — Tacitus

— Dramatic form of biographic memoirs, &c. — Improvement of English historians — Period of Louis XIV. fatal to France — Voltaire unlike a philosopher — gave a just idea of himself in a romance — Babouc at Persepolis.

CHAPTER IV. — page 54.

Montesquieu — His raillery more bitter than Voltaire's — early productions show libertinism of opinions — redeeming character of later works — Fable of " Troglodites" — position in society modified his opinions and conduct — philosophical view of magisterial duties — comparison with liossuct — enlightened passion for equity — not lost in vain theories — applicable spirit of his

OF THE CHAPTERS. XXV

writings — thoughts upon despotism — double direction of his talent shown in " The Dialogues of Sylla and Lysimachus " — recall to mind Corneille and Plato — peaceable times tinctured his works with an heroic benevolence — Machiavel — Minds in trouble resort to works most consonant with their experience — Montesquieu compared with Domat — State of literature when Voltaire and Montesquieu occupied supreme rank — Despreaux quoted — Character of mediocre minds — Transition between the epoch of Louis XIV. and preceding one reviewed — Mutual action of morals and letters upon each other — Mathematical and natural sciences draw attention — Newton — Leibnitz — Foreign literature translated by Voltaire and others — Voyages — Questions of politics and public economy — Contemporary writers placed Voltaire below Corneille, Racine, Despreaux and Rousseau — Merits of Louis Racine — Le Franc de Pompignan — Voltaire without a rival in tragedy — Various imitators of Racine and Corneille — Second-rate writers in comedy compared with Moiiere, Dancourt and Le Sage — Piron, Destouches, Lachaussee, and Gresset, gained reputation in the new school of comedy — Marivaux and Moiiere compared — Abbe Prevost made some figure in the same branch of literature — Second-rate talent began to spread the new opinions — Europe dazzled by them — their concurrence with morals, institutions, and government, in accelerating the French revolution — pacific ministry of Cardinal Fleury arrested progress for a time — Abbe de Bernis — Vauvenargues a disciple in the school of Pascal and Fenelon — Contempt for man generally follows the study of the moralist — Pascal and Bossuet — healing nature of their doctrines — The taste of Vauvenargues as pure as his moral — Rendered justice to Racine.

j

KX1 I \\ AN MAMS

CHAPTER V. — page 77.

Ancient and modern authors contrasted — Civilization, I led literary class — The public in time became judges — Writers an irritable race, through pride in their performances —

Dge of Racine — M. de Crequi — Sense of inferiority mortifying, not to writers only — all classes aimed at equality — Pride one of the exciting causes of revolution — Sanguine hopes of the literati — Mind and rank placed by Frederic of Prussia on the same level — Othersovereigns also patronized learning and academies that promoted it — The state of religion, morals, and politics, in France — King, nobles, ministers, generals, government ; showed neither power nor distinction — Universal homage paid to intellect — Seven years' war more introductory to revolution than philosophy of encyclopaedists — Writers eager to effect good by knowledge — mistaken in their own motives — some exceptions, but the multitude sought literary enjoyments with avidity — Nothing encouraged authors to bear a spirit of moderation and wisdom — Ministry opposed to Encyclopaedia — obstacles to its publication changed its destiny — became a party affair — first intended as a monument of science at the epoch — a review of the past should be advantageous to the future — second enterprise more conformed to its true aim — critical notice of its contributors — introduction to it much in repute — D'Alembert a mathematical genius of first order — Method by analysis — D'Alembert not skilled in metaphysics — Two modes of considering them — moral and physical action — difficulty of a pre-

knowledge — Science of thought — Science of sensation — Mallebranche, Leibnitz, occupied in the sublimer question — subject branded as a scholastic leverie by modem philosophers — with them the science lowered and nearly

OF THE CHAPTERS. XXV11

confounded with physiology — Germany maintained the higher theme, and Locke occupied in the same questions — Leibnitz exhibited a kind of pity for the superficial reasoning of Locke — Locke's opinions adopted by encyclopaedists — unfolded by Condillac with clearness, who lowered the science instead of elevating his readers — New theory influenced every branch of knowledge — insulated France from ancient philosophy and foreign schools — Exact sciences answer in some species of knowledge — their spirit and destiny not so agreeable to nature as persuasion — Religion, morals, politics, eloquence, poetry, fine arts, exist as being the intimate thought of the man — Disposition of soul as various as personal appearance — Nature in all — differently modified — Natural religion an interior revelation — System by analysis destructive — Religion abjured; infidelity; atheism — corrupting to lower classes — Obscenity disguised by philosophy.