The Christian element in Plato and the Platonic philosophy

Front matter

If;

I

Class.

Chapter I. Pagr

High regard of Plato by the Church fathers ; in the Greek, in the Latin Church. — Opposite judgments of the Church fathers concerning philosophy in general. — Admirers of Plato in the Middle Ages, and in modern times.

Chapter II

The Proximate Reason of this Recognition. — Passages and Doctrines in Plato's Writings which have a Christian tone, . 30

On the genuineness of Plato's works. — Minor passages from Plato parallel with New Testament passages. — Resemblances between Platonic and Mosaic ordinances. — Other longer passages from Plato which breathe a Christian spirit. — Comparison of important doctrines of the Platonic theology and ethics with related Christian dogmas. — Resemblance between Platonism and Christianity in some formal points. — Small value of all these particulars in a strictly scientific respect.

14 CONTENTS.

II. The Subject Developed Genetically

CHAPTER I.

PAOK

Removal of False Views and Opinions concerning Plato. — Relation of Plato to the New Platonists, and to Aristotle, . 69

False representations of Plato diffused both by his admirers and his opponents ; alleged encouragement of extravagant feelings by him ; Plato's low estimate of f eeling demonstrated ; on the so-called Platonic Love. — Whether Plato was an enthusiastic idealist. — Plato accused of Syncretism, decried as a Phantast. — Distinction of New Platonism from Platonism. — Low opinion of Aristotle of the Platonic philosophy ; disputes between the Platonists and Aristotelians ; reason for the misunderstanding between Plato and Aristotle in the intrinsic and necessary difference of their intellectual tendencies.

CHAPTER II.

The first impression from Plato's works is seldom a satisfactory one ; why ? — By what means the ill-humour of the readers of the Platonic writings is gradually removed. — Fire of the Platonic intellect ; finished presentation ; irony ; organic unity of his works ; the harmonious constitution of the soul and mind of their author ; his strength in severe thinking.

CHAPTER III. Principal Forms of Ancient Greek Philosophy, and its Position

with respect to Life, . . . ... . . . 131

History of the development of philosophy generally ; the most favourable conditions for this existed in Greece. — Ionicism. — Eleaticism. — Pythagorism and the Sophists. — Significance of Platonism in and for the history of philosophy. — Influence of Socrates on Plato. — Apparent similarity, real difference, between the ancient and modern philosophy. — Probable objec-

r tions to this discussion.

CONTENTS. 15

Chapter IV. Page

Starting-point of the thinker, the question of Being. — Original identity of being and thinking, relative separation and re-union of the two. — The Becoming and its power. — The right relation between existence and non-existence. — The Being of existence. — Ideas. — Reference of ideas to the Becoming ; Life.— God the original of the universe and life. — Departure of the world and man from God.— Deceptive appearance. — Unhappiness. — Philosophy as sajiour. — Dialectics : its relation to Ethics and Physics. — Harmony in the great and the small ; the reason and end of the world as a Divine work. — The germs of Plato's system. — Esoteric and exoteric doctrines. — Significance of the dialogal form for the Platonic philosophy. — Indications for a correct apprehension of the three main conceptions in Platonism : Science, the Good, and the Ideas.

Chapter V

The point at which the essential feature of Christianity is most surely perceived. — Fundamental impulse of life. — Difference between the lif e of nature in the great whole, and the natural life of man ; the latter relatively more hateful than the former. — The deep degradation of humanity as developed without higher influence. — Life recognises its evil to be its guilt. — The life of Christ that which will alone procure salvation. — Corroboration of the conception thus obtained of the Christian element from the Bible, and by the organic development of all its principal ideas from one. — The perception of the Jewish and heathen elements which is connected with this.

CHAPTER VI. That which is clearly Christian in Plato and his Philosophy, . 231

The most expressive conception of this offers itself unsought. — Proof that it embraces all that is essential to it. — Teleological character of Platonism ; the relation of this to Plato's theology. — The Platonic way of regarding the world and man, like the Christian ; the Platonic striving to enlighten and bless

16 CONTENTS.

PAGE

mankind and the world, like the Christian ; the Platonic faith in the historical existence of a Divine power of redemption, a truly Christian one.

Chapter VII

Non-Christian and Unchristian Elements in Plato ; Conclusion, . 252 Opposers of the Platonic Christianity. — Single unchristian and non-Christian elements in Plato's works. — The Pantheistic element in his theology. — The chief difference between Platonism and Christianity ; development of all the other deviations from this. — Incomparably high value of Christianity.

Appendix

Translation of some Passages from Plato referred to in the Sixth

Chapter, 269

ist of Authors referred to, 279

THE

CHRISTIAN ELEMENT* IN PLATO

AND THE

PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY.

I.

TfflB SUBJECT VIEWED EMPIRICALLY.

Chapter I. Early Recognition Of A Christian Element In Plato

It has been at all times felt and remarked, that there are some Christian elements in Plato, more indeed than in any other one of the ancient classical authors and philosophers. There has long been a disposition to apply to Plato what our Lord said to the Pharisee, ' Thou art not far from the kingdom of God.' (Mark xii. 34.)

Plato stood high in the regard of the ancient Christian Church, especially so long as the Greek Church Fathers were peculiarly the formers and leaders of theology. This was induced, partly by the custom of the times of deriving philosophical instruction principally from Plato, and they attached themselves to him in preference to any other, partly from conviction, because they found in him more Christian elements than in Aristotle. The remark of Patricius is, in the main, correct, that the elevation of Aristotle by scholasticism and the University of Paris, was in exact opposition to the reigning view concerning him in the ancient Christian Church.

i The Platonic dogmas,' says Justin Martyr, l are not foreign to Christianity. If we Christians say, that all things were created and ordered by God, we seem to enounce a dogma of Plato, and between our view of the Being of God and his, the article alone appears to make a difference.'

It is not difficult to conceive how Justin arrived at this way of thinking concerning the relation of Christianity to Platonism. He was, indeed, as he himself relates, 1 an enthusiastic admirer of Plato, before he found in the Gospel that full satisfaction which he had sought earnestly, but in vain, in the other. And, though the Gospel stood infinitely higher in his view than the Platonic philosophy, yet he regarded the latter as a sort of preliminary stage to the former. In the same way did the other apologetic writers express themselves concerning Plato and his philosophy, especially the most spirited and philosophically most important among them, Athenagoras, whose Apology is one of the most admirable works of Christian antiquity. It was certainly not merely their general knowledge and reverence for the Platonic philosophy which influenced these men in making reference to it so frequently in their defences, and in quoting whole passages from Plato's writings ; they were also induced, by the special object of their apologies, which they believed would be best attained by this means. What could seem to them more adapted to gain the favour of the heathen magistrates and emperors for Christianity, than the indication of the many coincidences of Christian and Platonic doctrines ?

The striking resemblance between them the church fathers sought to explain principally by the acquaintance which Plato made in his journey to Egypt, in part with learned Jews, and. in part with the Jewish Scriptures. Justin was not the first who derived the Platonic Theology and Ethics from this source ; the Jewish historian Josephus, 2 and the Jewish Peripatetic Aristobulus, 3 had already done this, and even the Platonist Numenius had called Plato directly an ' Atticising Moses." 4 It was a prevalent opinion in the Christian Church, that Plato and the heathen writers generally, had stolen the best and most beautiful parts of their writings from the Bible, especially the prophetical books. The heathen followers of the divine Plato cast this reproach back on the Christians. Celsus says that Christ took His most renowned sayings from Plato, and that the whole system of Christian doctrine consists really of Platonic dogmas, in part misunderstood and in part perverted. 5 However erroneous these opinions were, they certainly afford a strong proof of the general feeling among the ancients, that Platonism and Christianity were nearly related.

This relation, Justin, and those church fathers who were not disinclined to the heathen philosophy, sought further to explain on another foundation than that already adduced, viz., the universal and long existing light of divine revelation. God's entire act of revelation was connected by them, as is well known, with the idea of the Logos, and this, moreover, was conceived of by them more in the sense of Philo than in that of John. To the divine Logos corresponded, in their view, the Logos or rational spirit in man. The fullest glory of the eternal Logos, they taught, appeared to the world in Christ ; but long before this appearance, he had already operated in the world, and scat-

3 Euseb. Praep. Evang. 13, 12.

4 Clem. Al. Strom. 1, 251, b. Cf. Euseb. Praep. Evang. 11, 10, p. 527, ed. Yiger.

tered everywhere single rays of His light ; not merely the pious patriarchs of the old covenant, were enlightened and blessed by a believing hope in the day of the Lord, but also among the heathen sages the rational spirit had, through the ever active power of the eternal Logos, obtained single perceptions of the truth. Hence Justin had no hesitation in numbering them among Christians on earth and among the blessed in heaven.

It was especially Clement of Alexandria, who sought to derive the true and beautiful in Greek philosophy, particularly in Plato, from the original source of highest wisdom. 6 He was a decided Platonist, although he called himself an Eclectic. His writings are full of quotations from Plato, and of compari sons between Platonic and Christian doctrines. He regarded faith as the foundation of theology, as w r ell as of Christian life, and attached to it accordingly a high value ; yet, we must not, he says, with respect to science, be satisfied with simple faith ; we must rather seek to develop it by a careful process of reasoning, to elevate it and transform it into a real scientific knowledge (Gnosis). As a consequence of this view r he held true philosophy and true religion to be identical. Their philosophy, though deficient, served to the Greeks, like the law to the Jews, for a schoolmaster or leader to Christ, yea, even for a sort of Christ through whom they might be justified before God. Accordingly he was also inclined to regard Christianity as Platonism raised to perfection and brought out into life and activity. A view which he is indeed careful not to enounce plainly, but which he held in common with many others, and which is still apparent even in the strict Augustine. 7

His Platonico-Christian way of thinking, and the endeavour to represent Platonism and Christianity as friendly to each other, Clement handed down to his spirited and fertile pupil, Origen,

6 The principal passage is Strom. 1. 104, a. Cf. 7, 505, and 7, 526, c. sq.

7 Aug. c. Acad. 3, 20. Cf. Civ. Dei. 8, 8, and especially Eetractt. 1, 13 to whom also Platonism came from another source, namely, from Ammonius Saccas, his instructor in philosophy. There are, indeed, in Origen fewer single passages than in the other Church Fathers, in which he mentions the Christianity of Plato with commendation, he often comes out even in decided opposition to it. 8 But, notwithstanding this, Origen must be accounted one of the greatest admirers of Plato, in the Christian Church. His Platonising is seen less in the details than in the whole of his teaching, which is organically penetrated with Platonic ideas, and in part rose out of them.

A Church Father of the first centuries, speaking generally, did not easily escape the influence of Platonism ; even in the doctrinal views of the ' ecclesiastically dogmatic ' Irenaeus, Platonic elements break through here and there. None, however, instituted so thorough a comparison between Platonic and Christian dogmas, and brought out the harmonious relation of Platonism to Christianity, so industriously as Eusebius of Caesarea. He calls Plato ' the only Greek who has attained the porch of (Christian) truth,' 9 and the 11th, 12th, and 13th books of his Evangelical Preparation have at bottom no other aim than to prove this proposition. As he designates the points in which Christ and Plato agree, he is also not silent concerning those in which they differ. And thus, at last, is manifested in him, as in all the church fathers, the lofty superiority which Christianity possesses above even the highest and best heathen philosophy.

Theodoret also labours to show this in his interesting work on ' The healing of the Grecomania.' In this work, he gives the Platonic philosophy preference above every other, because it comes nearest to the chief doctrines of Christianity. Hence also, it exercised, according to his view, an influence preparatory for Christianity, but did not possess inward energy sufficient to penetrate and reform the world.

It is well known, and as easily understood, in how commendatory and appreciative a manner the great Augustine expresses himself concerning Plato and his philosophy, especially in his celebrated work, 'De civitate Dei,' which a modern investigator calls ' the ripest fruit of the inward union of Christian and Platonic wisdom.' He, like Justin, had been a zealous adherent of the Academy before he had recognized in Christ the fulness of light and life, and though, as a Christian, he took up arms against his former associates, yet he always confessed that the Platonists were the most Christian among all the heathen, and, ' that they only needed to change their words and opinions a little to become true Christians.' A passage in his Confessions is especially noteworthy in this connection, where he thanks God that he became acquainted with Plato's writings first, and with the Gospel afterwards, for, if the case had been reversed, he might have been drawn away from the firm foundation of his piety, or have taken up the opinion, that having even these books alone, one could attain to Christian piety. 10

By the side of this expression of Augustine may be placed the opinion of Bellarmine, which he gave to Pope Clement VIIL, when the latter proposed to introduce the Platonic philosophy formally into the higher course of instruction. Bellarmine gave his counsel against this procedure, on the ground that the Platonic philosophy comes nearest to Christian theology, and hence, is most adapted to attract those minds which are seeking Christianity, and thus to prevent their further advance.

Philosophy was less loved in the Western than in the Eastern Church ; the former apprehended rather the practical earnestness of Christianity, the latter was more inclined to view it from its speculative side. Hence violent invectives against the old heathen philosophy are not rare in the w T ritings of the other Latin Fathers ; and they often express themselves even concerning Plato with a certain contemptuousness. Especially must be mentioned the glowing Tertullian. To him the whole heathen philosophy is hateful ; obscurity and conceit seem to him its primal elements, 11 and Platonism, he regards, as the most eminent source of all heresies and perversions of the Gospel. We meet with similar views and expressions in Jul. Firmicus, Arnobius, and Lactantius. 12 The witty Hermias also stands, as regards his contempt of philosophy, on the side of the Latins.

Yet so strict a separation of the church fathers into a right and left side with respect to their views of philosophy and Platonism, as is usually made, and may appear to have been undertaken in what has been said above, cannot be carried out and justified. If we would see our way clearly through the apparently great contradictions which the church fathers afford with respect to their estimate of Platonism, we must seek an entirely different point of view from that usually and most easily adopted. We must before all things be convinced of the decided position of all the church fathers within Christian or evangelical truth, and recognize their deep and enthusiastic reverence for it. Nothing, not the glory of the world, nor the splendour of merely human wisdom, was able to make them falter, or to draw them from the position which they had honestly chosen. They do not stand together before the Gospel and philosophy with unbiassed minds ; and when they declare for the Gospel, choose it in consequence of an intelligent appreciation and examination of it ; much rather is the elective determination of the mind long since past, and they are captivated by the glory of the Lord and in favour of the Gospel ; and however variously and in opposition to each other they may express themselves concerning the value of

12 Jul. Firm, de error, prof. rel. 2, 1, etc. Arnob. Adv. 9. 2, 10, 11, and especially 50. Lact. Inst. 3. 3, 19, 21, etc. Cf. Theoph. ad Ant. 3, 390, b; 381, esq.

philosophy and its relation to Christianity, all these expressions recur to the one fundamental view common to all of them on this subject ; Philosophy was of little value to them, as such, and their estimation of it, whether slight 13 or high, had respect only to its agency as preparatory to Christianity and as conducive to the development of Christian faith. Their commendation of Plato did not proceed from a heart divided between Plato and Christ ; their whole ardour and enthusiasm was ever unalterably directed to the Lord ; and when they pointed, with commendation, to Plato, this was only because he seemed to them to point to Christ, and because, in their opinion, if he had lived till the time of Christ, he would have fallen in homage before the Lord Jesus, and would have beheld with joy the realization of his ideals in and through Him. They valued and reverenced the Platonic philosophy therefore, merely on account of its relation of ministry to the great work of Redemption, — a relation appointed by God Himself ; outside of this connection, and in so far as the New Platonist endeavoured to give to the philosophy an entirely different meaning and value from that above designated, it appeared to them a vain and objectionable thing, and its pretension to pass for something in and of itself they considered an assumption which was not by any means to be tolerated. By this it can be explained, that we find so often in the same church fathers contradictory expressions concerning philosophy and Platonism, and hence it is, that the philosophy-hating Arnobius and Lactantius frequently designated philosophers as participating in Christian truth, while Origen, who* was full of love and admiration for Plato, becomes at times a most violent opponent of philosophy and Plato ! Facts of this kind must, of course, be weighed against each other, if we would arrive at a just view of the much discussed and questioned Platonism of the church fathers.

13 Just. Ap. 1, 46. Dial, c Tr. 102, a. A particularly beautiful passage in Athen. leg. p. 288, b. sq. Clem. Al. Strom. 1, 217 ; 6, 465, etc.

There was, in general, in Christian antiquity, a great and decided disposition to bring Plato within the circle of the Gospel, and to represent his teaching as similar to the evangelical. Hence the younger Apollinaris made the remarkable attempt to re-cast the New Testament into Platonic dialogues ! Hence, also, the legend arose, and became widely diffused, that Plato came into immediate contact with Christ on His descent into hell, and was by Him redeemed and raised to heaven.

In the middle ages and in modern times, there has not been wanting a due acknowledgment of the Christian element in Plato. The ancient reverence for Plato did indeed decrease on the rise of the scholastic philosophy, and that for Aristotle took its place ; their ignorance of Greek also kept the schoolmen far from Plato, since translations of his works were less widely diffused than of those of Aristotle. Yet the usual view of the Platonic philosophy maintained its ground even in scholasticism, though, in some cases, only as a reminiscence, not as a living product of independent study. There were two circumstances especially, which ensured the continuance of this view in the middle ages, the accordance of Plato and Aristotle in all essential points, which had been expressed in antiquity, and was very generally accepted by the schoolmen, but chiefly the tendency to mystical theology, which had become strong since the fifth and sixth centuries, and was increased by scholasticism. The so-called Areopagite Dionysius has long passed for the father and founder of this theology ; and his theological system was nothing else but New Platonism translated into Christian phraseology. The publication and diffusion of the writings of Dionysius was zealously promoted by the Platonizing Scotus Erigena.

The all-revered Augustine also contributed not a little to the spread and high estimation of Platonico-Christian ideas in the middle ages. The Platonico-Augustinian views appear most prominently in the celebrated Anselm of Canterbury ; but even in Abelard, who was, in certain respects, his complete opposite, the rigorous Bernard of Clairvaux found this especially blameworthy, that he laboured so zealously to prove the Christianity of Plato. Yet Bernard himself, on account of his mystical principles, was not incorrectly declared to be a Platonist, — for what he teaches of the contemplative life and of self-denying love, is certainly Platonic.

In proportion as the mystic was victorious over the scholastic theology, Plato regained that high consideration which he had formerly enjoyed without a rival in the Christian Church. Even if the mystics did not call attention, in express words to the Christian elements of the Platonic philosophy, yet their very appearance furnishes a speaking testimony in its favour ; for their Christianity is (so to speak) only the developed and manifested Christianity of Platonism. And here the profound and spiritual Tauler deserves especial mention.

Plato, however, became the object of a particularly enthusiastic admiration at the revival of classical literature in Italy. In the house of the Medici, in Florence, and under the leadership of Ficinus, who, as is well known, wrote a work on the theology of Plato, was instituted a formal Platonic Academy ; the birth-day festival of the great master, which had not been celebrated since the death of Porphyry, was restored, and it was passages from Plato's works which Cosmo de Medici commended, even on his death-bed, for their Christianity and consoling power.

Single testimonies for the Christian character of the Platonic philosophy, may also be drawn from the period of the Eeformation. The classically-educated Erasmus, 14 especially, did not neglect to call attention to this. The revered Melancthon also delivered an excellent panegyric on Plato, 15 although in spite of his friend Luther's anti- Aristotelian sentiments, he was much more inclined to Aristotelianism than to Platonism.

The times after the Reformation were not adapted to aid the

14 Eras. Adhort. ad Christ, phil. studium. (Opp. Basle. 1540, iv. p 119).

15 Melancth. Oratt. t. 2. p. 347, sq.

Protestant theologians to a calm and appreciative view of Plato. Yet a number of writings might be mentioned of the 16th, as well as the 17th and 18th centuries, principally, however, by Catholics, of which some have, for their sole object, to compare the Platonic with the Christian doctrines, and to show the connection between them, while others indicate the relationship only incidentally and in passing. Those who maintained the agreement of Platonism with Christianity, were, of course, attacked by opponents, both numerous and violent, particularly among the Protestants.

Some of the most important friends of the Platonic philosophy in this period were Steuchus Eugubinus, 16 Franciscus Patricius, 17 and Petrus Calanna. 18 Patricius enumerates fortythree propositions, in which Plato harmonizes with the Christian theology, but Aristotle does not. Nor less did Mornseus, in his Apology 19 for the Christian religion, Vieri, 20 Pansa, 21 and Gale, 22 labour to procure the recognition of the Christian spirit of Platonism. But this theme was treated most at large, in an extensive work by Livius Galantes, which, however, can lay little claim to real scientific and philosophical importance. 23

We may also consider, as a recommendation of the Platonic philosopheme, on the side of its Christianity, the copious and well known work of Cudworth, the ' Intellectual System,' 24 the value of which has been considerably increased by the editing

17 Fr. Patricius Aristoteles exotericus, in the Appendix to his Nova de universis philos. Ferr. 1591, fol.

20 Fr. de Vieri Compendium doctrinae plat, quatenus cum Christ fide conspirat. 1517.

23 Liv. Galantes de Christ, theologise cum Platonica comparatione. Bol. 1627, fol.

ZO THE SUBJECT VIEWED EMPIRICALLY.

of that thorough investigator, Mosheim. Reactions, however, from the threatening preponderance of Platonism, did not fail to make their appearance also in England.

In later and most recent times, the Christian element of the Platonic philosophy has not been treated or demonstrated in any great work devoted exclusively to this subject. Not a few references to it, however, occur in theological and philosophical works. The able writings of Bautain 20 and Degerando, 26 especially, contain such hints and observations : the short history of Platonic philosophy also, by Combes-Dounous, may be mentioned here. The Dane Luxdorph wrote on the margin of his Plato, the parallel passages from the Bible which seemed appropriate to him, and he found many such, both in the Old and New Testaments. Since his death, this collection of passages has been published with notes by Worm. Wettstein has drawn similar parallels between Christian and Platonic sentences, in his well-known edition of the New Testament, which has a general reference to ancient classical literature.

Among German philosophers, Jacobi, whom Schelling justly calls the spiritual kinsman of Plato, is the principal one, who has perceived and called attention to the inclination of the Platonic to the Christian theology ; 27 and among German theologians, Staudlin has done most service in promoting the investigation of this subject. He rightly places Plato near to Christianity, but may have erred, in that he is inclined with Augustine to believe, that Plato would have acknowledged Jesus as his Lord and Redeemer, if it had been granted to him to have lived till His appearance on earth. Grotefend, in his valuable prize- essay, expresses himself more correctly and more

25 Bautain La morale de l'evang. comparee a la mor. des philosophes. Strasbourg, 1828.

26 Degerando Hist, comparee des systemes de philos. 2° Ed. Paris. 1822.

cautiously, on the friendly understanding which, in part, really exists between Platonism and Christianity, and which in part is only apparent. 28

A few cursory indications only have been adduced from the history of philosophy and theology, to establish the main proposition of this chapter, that the Christian element in Plato was early noted and spoken of. But these few indications are unquestionably quite sufficient to prove and corroborate this assertion.

28 See List of authors in the Appendix.