The principles of English grammar; comprising the substance of the most approved English grammars extant, with copious exercises in parsing and syntax; and an appendix of various and useful matter

Front matter

f [SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT. ]

i -n #

If ¥4

Preface

A knowledge of English Grammar is very properly considered ar* indispensable part of an English education ; and is now taught as such, in all our Academies and Common Schools. The great number of elementary works which have recently appeared on this subject, is a pleasing evidence of the attention which has been bestowed upon it. Among these, none has enjoyed greater favour than the Grammar of Lindley Murray ; and the high rank which it still holds among the numerous works which have appeared since its publication, is a decided testimony to the soundness of its principles and the excellence of the system. With all its excellence, however, it is far from being incapable of improvement; and the attempt to add to its value as a manual for schools, by correcting what is erroneous, retrenching what is superfluous or unimportant, compressing what is prolix, elucidating what is obscure, determining what wa3 left doubtful, supplying what is defective, and bringing up the whole to that state of improvement to which the labours of eminent scientific and practical writers of the present day have so greatly contributed, can hardly fail, if well executed, to prove acceptable to the public. Such was my design ; and though there may be reason to regret that it has not been undertaken by some one more capable of doing justice to the subject, still it is hoped that the labour bestowed, in order to carry it into effect, will not be altogether in vain.

In endeavouring to avoid the minutiae and diffuseness of the larger Grammar, care has been taken to guard against the opposite extreme. The abridgments of Murray now in use, are little more than a synopsis of the larger work ; presenting a mere outline of the subject, altogether too meagre to be of much service to the learner. The same remark is applicable to a great number of smaller works which have been published with a similar view ; namely, to serve as an introduction to a more extended system. They are incapable themselves of imparting a satisfactory knowledge of the subject ; and yet it often happens, perhaps even in a majority of cases, that those who have

IV PREFACE.

commenced with the "introduction," have neither the time nor the means to get beyond it: and besides, unless the "introduction " be constructed on the same principle of arrangement and expression with the one which is intended to succeed, it will probably be found worse than useless ; for when a particular arrangement and phraseology have become familiar to the mind, there is great difficulty in studying another work on the same subject, in which the arrangement and expression are materially different. A Grammar, to be really valuable, ought to be simple in its style and arrangement, so as to be adapted to the capacity of youth, for whose use it is designed ; comprehensive, so as to be a sufficient guide in the most difficult, as well as in easy cases ; and its principles and rules should be rendered familiar to the learner by numerous examples and exercises.

To meet these views of what a Grammar for the use of Schools ought to be, the present compilation has been made, — with what success, a discerning public, to whose judgment it is respectfully submitted, will decide. Utility, not novelty, has been aimed at. In collecting materials, I have freely availed myself of the labours of others who have treated on the subject since the days of Murray, and particularly of those whose object has been similar to my own. Lennie's " Principles of English Grammar," deservedly esteemed, in Britain, the best compend for the use of schools which has yet appeared, I have adopted as the ground plan of my work. The works of Murray, Angus, Connel, Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Webster, and others in the extensive collection of my friend Dr. Beck, to which 1 have enjoyed free access, have been consulted ; and from all of them has been carefully selected, condensed, and arranged, whatever seemed to be suitable to my purpose. For several valuable suggestions, also, I am indebted to Dr. T. R. Beck, and several other literary friends, who kindly examined my MSS. before they were sent to press, and freely communicated their sentiments. On the whole, it is believed that there is nothing of much importance in Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works of subsequent writers, that will not be found condensed here.

On the subject of Etymology, much expansion has been deemed unnecessary: I have therefore generally contented myself with statin^ results, without embarrassing the work with the processes, often tedious and obscure, which have led to them. In the classification of words, almost all writers differ from each other ; and though on this subject there has been much discussion, nothing has yet been proposed which, on the whole, appears less objectionable in principle, or more conve-

PREFACE. V

nient in practice, than that of Murray, which is therefore generally retained.

In Syntax, greater fulness has been considered proper. In the arrangement of the Rules, scarcely two writers have followed the same order ; and that here adopted is somewhat different from any other. Without regarding much the usual division of Syntax into Concord and Government, those rules are placed first which appear to be most simple, and of most frequent occurrence. Care has been taken, however, to connect with a leading rule those of a subordinate character allied to it, and to add under every rule such notes and observations as appeared necessary to its illustration. Copious exercises in false syntax follow each rule, generally on the same page ; and exercises adapted to the notes, &c. are subjoined, distinguished by the number of the note to which they belong. For the purpose of better exercising the judgment of the pupil, there have been introduced at intervals, exercises on the preceding rules promiscuously arranged ; and at the end, promiscuous exercises are furnished on all the rules and observations ; — the whole forming a body of exercises, containing perhaps not fewer examples than Murray's separate volume of Exercises on the Rules of Syntax. In this, economy as well as convenience has been consulted. The leading principles have been made so prominent by being printed on a large type, that they may be easily studied by the youngest classes without a separate compend. Every thing necessary for the fuller expansion and illustration of these principles, has been introduced in its place ; and the whole furnished with questions and appropriate exercises, in order to render every part familiar to the mind of the pupil as he advances, so that no larger treatise, and no separate book of exercises, will be necessary. The arrangement of the exercises on syntax on the same page with the rule which they are designed to illustrate, it is believed, will greatly diminish the labour, both of teacher and pupil, in going over this important part of the subject.

Another object steadily kept in view in this compilation is to render it a profitable introduction to classical studies. While all languages differ from each other in their mode of inflexion, and in some forms of expression peculiar to themselves, usually denominated idioms, their general principles are, to a very great extent, the same. It would seem, therefore, to be proper, in constructing grammars for differen . languages, that the principles, so far as they are the same, should be arranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly as possible in the same words. Were this carefully done, the study of the grammar of

1*

VI PREFACE,

one language would be a very important aid in the study of another ; and the opportunity thus afforded of seeing wherein they agree ana wherein they differ, would of itself furnish a profitable exercise in comparative grammar. But when a Latin grammar is put into the hands of a boy, differing widely in its arrangement or phraseology from the English grammar which he had previously studied, and then in due time a Greek grammar different from both, not only is the benefit derived from the analogy of the different languages in a great measure lost, but the whole subject is made to appear intolerably intricate and mysterious. To remedy this evil, I resolved, some time ago, to publish a series of Grammars of the English, Latin, and Greek languages, arranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly in the same words as the genius of the languages would permit. In the prosecution of this purpose, the Greek Grammar, on the foundation of Moor's, was published in 1831 ; the English Grammar of Murray, in a condensed form, embracing every thing valuable from later works, is now offered to the public ; and if the plan is favourably received, the Latin Grammar of Alexander Adam, adapted to the system, with improvements > will follow as soon as possible.

PREFACE

TO THE FIFTH EDITION.

This work has been again thoroughly revised, and every error discovered in the preceding editions has been carefully corrected. A section has been introduced in its proper place on Person, as a modification or accident of the noun. The terms Transitive and Intransitive, have been substituted for Active and Neuter, as a more appropriate and accurate designation of the two classes of verbs. By this means all ambiguity and controversy is avoided on this point — the term Active is confined to one appropriate use, — and the word Neuter is dispensed with so as to be applied solely to the gender of nouns. The designation of the tenses formerly used is still retained, while that recommended, p. 38, as more expressive and appropriate is at the request of some distinguished teachers, inserted in brackets after the other ; so that th»

PREFACE. VII

one or the other, or both, may be conveniently used as the teacher may direct. A page and a half has been added to the section on composition, and an Appendix of 28 pages has been added, containing a brief statement and examination of some points relative to grammar itself— the classification and designation of the parts of speech — an etymological vocabulary of grammatical terms, shewing their derivation and meaning — a list of Latin and French words and phrases, often to be met with in English books, — and a selection and explanation of the more common law terms, constantly occurring in the reports of legal proceedings, and the debates of our legislative assemblies in this country.

The author takes this opportunity of renewing his grateful acknowledgments to those gentlemen who have kindly examined the work, and favored him with their observations on it. To the hints derived from these, he is chiefly indebted for the improvements that appear in this edition. The favorable opinion expressed of the work by the most competent judges, encourages him to hope that the object he had in view, to furnish a simple, concise, and comprehensive manual of English Grammar, better adapted to the use of academies and common schools than any yet published, is now in a good degree attained.

The Latin Grammar formerly announced has been published, and also the revised edition of the Greek Grammar. These works now form a complete series of grammars— English, Latin, and Greek all on the same plan, arranged in the same order, and having the definitions, rules, and leading parts expressed as near as possible in the same language. By this method the confusion and unnecessary labor occasioned by studying grammars, in these languages, constructed on different principles is avoided, the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the study of another, and an opportunity is furnished to the enquiring student of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure, and seeing at once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ. The whole is now submitted to the examination and favorable consideration of a discerning public.

Albany Academy, Sept. 23, 1842.

CONTENTS OF APPENDIX.

I. Grammar, 189

II. Classification of words, 191

III. Remarks on Different Classes of Words, 192

IV. Grammatical Nomenclature, 202

V. Etymological Glossary of Grammatical terms,. . . 204

VI. Explanation of French Words and Phrases, 209

VII. Explanation of Latin Words and Phrases, 211

VIII. Explanation of Law terms, 213

DIRECTIONS FOR USING THIS GRAMMAR.

This Grammar being designed for the use of the more advanced scholar, as well as of the mere beginner, a few suggestions, the result, of some experience, respecting the mode of using it, may not be improper. In commencing any study J the first care of the judicious teacher will be to excite a proper interest in it \u the minds of his pupils, and to render their progress as easy and pleasant as pos sible. Without this, the easiest and most engaging studies may be rendered irksome and disgusting, and all relish for, as well as progress in theni effectually prevented. This evil will be avoided, and a proper interest in the study of Eri glish Grammar excited and maintained, if the following course of study be carefully observed : —

1. Very young pupils, or mere beginners at any age, should be required to study only the leading- parts which are generally distinguished in the Grammar by a larger type. The subordinate parts in smaller type, together with the whole of § 2 ; § 19 from No. 5 to 9 ; and the Obs. in § 20,21,22, and 24 should be omitted till afterwards. And m order to vary the exercise, from ten to twenty or thirty words of § 32 may be given with each lesson from the beginning, so that the whole may be gone through without loss of time, and almost without an effort.

2. No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class can easily master, and till this is done, a new portion should not be given out.

3. The portion assigned for every new lesson should be read over to the class, and explained, if necessary, by familiar remarks and illustrations ; and care should be taken that every pupil know, before he is sent to his seat, what he is expected to do at the next recitation, and how it is to be done. A little pains taken in this way will be amply rewarded by the spirit and pleasure with which the lesson will be studied, and the rapid progress that will be made.

4. All rules and definitions, together with the more important parts, should be accurately committed to memory, and the whole wrought into the understanding as well as the memory of the pupil, by questions and familiar illustrations adapted to his capacity till he has completely mastered it. To aid in this, copious Exercises have been introduced throughout, in which the class should be drilled till every thing is easy and familiar. In this way a class of ordinary capacity, even of very young pupils, may be carried through to $ 39 in the space of four or five weeks ; and of those more advanced, in two or three.

5. The acquisitions made in every new lesson should be rivetted and secured by repeated revisals. It takes up but a few minutes, and is attended with very great advantage to begin every new lesson, or every other one with a rapid re view of the whole from the beginning, or from such part as the teacher may direct.

6. Having in this way advanced to § 39, the pupil is prepared to commence Etymological parsing, for which directions are given in that Section. It is necessary he should be expert in this exercise before he enter on Syntax. To aid in this, ample directions and exercises are furnished from p. 75 to p. 85.

7. In the study of Syntax, the same course in general should be pursued as in the preceding part. At first, the rule at the top of the page only should be committed to memory, and then rendered familiar by the exercises under it. The subordinate rules and observations, with the exercises belonging to them, will be studied with more ease and advantage on a subsequent lwisal. When this has been done, he will be prepared for exercises in Syntactical Parsing and Promiscuous Exercises in Syntax,* of which a great variety is furnished in § 85.

8. At the same time that the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, it will be a proper time to study the whole Grammar in course ; and to take up in his progress the parts formerly omitted, which, from the acquirements now made, will be better appreciated and more easily mastered ; and in doing this also, repeated revisals should not be neglected.

The 6tudy of English Grammar, prorecutedin this way, will prove both pleasing and profitable. The pupil, knowing what he is doing, and elated with success, wjll proceed with activity and cheerfulness ; and in a comparatively short timft win finu himself a good grammarian.

Index

AND

Table Of Contents

PARTI. ORTHOGRAPHY,

Page.

Of Letters, « . 8

OfSyllables, . ... . . * . %

Rules for spelling words, ....•••• 2

Part II. Etymology

Words, and their division into Parts of Speech, • • • 6, 7

I. Article, of, • 8

Syntax of, . 127

II. Nouns, different kinds of, person of, . . • • 9

Gender of, • • .9

Observations on, . • . # . 11

Number, rules for plural, . . • . .12

Nouns irregular in the plural, • . 13

Observations on, . .... 14

Cases, 16

Nominative, construction of, . . 87, 88

Possessive, how formed ; observations on, 17

Objective, governed by active verbs, . 90

by neuter verbs, . . 90

by prepositions, . 92

Declension of, . 16

Used for adjectives, and adjectives for nouns, . 20 Construction of, in apposition, .... 102

III. ADJECTiVES,"definition and comparison of, Obs. on, . 18, 19

Compared irregularly, 20 of comparative & superlative, 114, 115

Contents

Page, 21

. m

. 23

PART III. SYNTAX. Syntax, general principles of, parts of, • • • .86,87

Rules of, from 88 to 130

Miscellaneous obs. on certain phrases, • • . 145

Improper expressions, a list of, • • • 149

Punctuation, rules for, &c. . .••••. 151

Abbreviations, ..•••••••157

Paragraphs and capitals, 158

Rhetorical divisions of a discourse, . • • • • .159 Different kinds of composition, ..••••• 160

PART IV. PROSODY. Prosody, division of, • • • . • • • 163

Elocution, 163

Versification, • • • •• • • .163

Figures of speech, • • • • #• .175

Poetic license, .....•• 176

Hints for correct and elegant writing, . • . . . 180 Composition, 183. Appendix, 189

XII

CONTENTS.

ORDER OP THE RULES OF SYNTAX.

Rule I. A verb must agree with its nominative, Special rules under Rule i.

II. A trans, verb governs the objective case, Special rules under Rule n. . .

Prepositions govern the objective case, .

Two or more nouns sing, in connexion, taken separately, .

XX. Page

. 88 89

. 90 91

. 92 93

. 94 95 96 97

A verb with nominatives of different persons, A verb with a collective noun, Adjectives of number, the pron. this and that, When two persons or things are contrasted, &c. 98 Pronouns agree with the nouns, &c . . 99 The relative agrees with its antecedent, . . 100 Special rules and observations under Rule xi. 101 Substantives signifying the same thing, &c. . 102 A verb may have the same case after it as before, 103

The possessive case, 104

"When the present participle is used as a noun, 107 The present participle with an article before it, 105 The perfect participle is used after have and be, 109 One verb governs another in the infinitive, 110

The subjunctive mood, Ill

Conjunctions couple the same moods and

tenses, &c. 112

XXI. Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunct. 113

XXII. Comparative degree and the pronoun other, 114

XXIII. Double comparatives and superlatives, . 115

XXIV. Adverbs modify verbs, &c. . 116

XXV. Adverbs are for the most part placed, &c. 1 17

XXVI. Two negatives in the same sentence, . .118

XXVII. Prepositions before names of places, . . 119

XXVIII. Certain words and phrases must be followed, &c. 120

XXIX. In the use of verbs, &c. ; the order of time, &c. 123

XXX. When a member of a sentence refers to two

different clauses, it should be, &c. . .125

XXXI. Case absolute, .126

XXXII. The article A, &c .127

XXXIII. An ellipsis is admissible when, &c. . . 129

XXXIV. An ellipsis is not allowable when, &c. • .130 Miscellaneous observations, • • • 145

GRAMMAR.

Grammar is both a Science and an Art.

As a Science, it investigates the principles of language in general. When thus used, it is denominated General or Universal Grammar ; and sometimes Comparative Grammar.

As an Art, it teaches the right method of applying these principles to a particular language, so as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and proper manner, according to established usage

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing the English Language with propriety.

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

Part First

§ 1. ORTHOGRAPHY.

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of Letters, and the correct method of spelling words.

A Letter is a character representing a particular sound of thehu man voice.

There are Twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet.

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants.

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate sound ; and in a word or syllable may be sounded alone. They are, a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, not beginning a syllable.

A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound j and in a word or syllable is never sounded alone, but always in connexion with a vowel. They are, b, c, d, /, g, h) h by h m t n ) P) <li r ) s t t) v ) x t z i an d w an( i V beginning a syllable.

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. They are of two kinds, proper and improper.

A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded, as ou in out ; oi in oil; ow in cow.

An Improper Diphthong or digraph is one in which only one of the vowels is sounded, as ou in court, oa in boat.

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound as eau in beauty.

The powers of letters.

In analyzing words into their elementary sounds, it is necessary to distinguish between the name of a letter and its power.

The name of a letter is that by which it is usually called ; as A, be, se, de, &c.

The power of a letter is the effect which it has, either by itself or combined with other letters, in forming a word or syllable.

Note. All the vowels have each several powers. — Several letters have the same power, — and certain powers or elements of words are represented by a combination of two letters.

The elementary powers or sounds in the English language are about forty, and are divided into Vocals, Subvocals, and Aspirates.

Vocals are inarticulate sounds produced by the organs of voice,* with the mouth more or less open, and with no, or but slight change of position in the organs of speech.

* The Organs of voice are those parts (called by physiologists the Larynx and its appendages) which are employed in the production of simple vocal sounds.

The Organs of speech are those parts employed to articulate or modify whispering or vocal sounds. These are the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate.

§1.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

Subvocals are sounds produced by the organs of voice, articulated or modified by certain changes in the position of the organs of speech.

Aspirates are mere whispering sounds without vocality, but which still have an audible effect in the enunciation of words. They are all articulate, except h.

The elementary powers of letters cannot be exhibited to the eye, but must be learned from the living voice.

The name of a vowel is always one of its powers (except w and y,) and if from the name of a consonant we take away the vowel sound, what remains is generally the power of that consonant, except w and y.

A full view of the elementary powers of letters in the formation of words is exhibited in the following table. In the words annexed as examples, the letter whose power is indicated is printed in Italic. By pronouncing the word distinctly, and then leaving out all but the power of the Italic letter, and uttering that alone, we have the power of that letter.

Table of Elementary Sounds in the English Language.

Vocals.

Subvocals.

Aspirates.

A.

ale, able.

B.

oat, oro.

F. /ix,

A.

art.

D.

do, did.

H. Aat.

A.

all.

G.

gone, dog.

K. Zreep, boo&.

A.

at.

J.

judge.

P. pen, top.

E.

me.

L.

lie.

S. sun.

E.

met, egg.

M.

man.

T. Jop, ba£.

I.

ire.

N.

no.

Th. fai^A.

I.

in.

NG.

ring.

Sh. show.

old.

rope, far.

Ch. chide.

move,ooze.

Th.

tkis.

Wh. when.

odd.

V.

Dan.

U.

twne,wse.

w.

we.

IT.

wp.

Y.

yes.

U.

Ml

Z.

zinc.

Ou.

thou.

Z.

azure.

* R before a vowel has a hard or trilling sound j as : rat. rough : — After a vowel, a soft and liquid sound, as : arm^far^

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

§1.

Certain letters in the English Alphabet have the same power as others in the above table, and may therefore be called Equivalents, Equivalents of vowels and diphthongs are numerous.

Of the Subvocals and Aspirates eight pairs are Correlatives. In sounding the first of any of these pairs, the organs of voice and speech are in the same position as in sounding its fellow, but the first, or subvocal, has vocality j the second, or aspirate, has not.

Table of Equivalents and Correlatives.

Equivalents.

Correlatives.

Subvocals.

Aspirates.

W = u cow, mew.

V. vow.

F. fame.

Y = i tyrant, sys-

G. gone.

K. keep.

tem.

B. bat.

P. pen.

C hard = k cat.

Z. zinc.

S. sin.

Q = k liquor.

D. do.

T. top.

C soft = s cent.

Th. this.

Th. thick.

G soft = j gin.

Z. azure.

Sh. show.

X =ks fix.

J. judge.

Ch. chide.

SYLLABLES.

A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a word, as : far ; or so much of it as can be sounded at once, as : far in farmer.

A word contains as many syllables as it has distinct vocal sounds ; as : gram-ma-ri-an.

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as : fox. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; as : farmer. A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables ; as : piety. A Volysyllable is a word of many syllables.

§2. ORTHOGRAPHY. 5

§ 2. SPELLING.

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters, and rightly dividing it into syllables.

The Orthography of the English language is so anomalous, and in many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired only by practice and the use of the Spelling book or Dictionary. — The following rules are of a general character, though even to these there may be a few exceptions.

RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS.

Rule I. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a short vowel, double that consonant before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, rob, robber; admit, admittance, admitted. Except x and k, which are never doubled.

But when a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled; as, boil, boiling, boiler ; visit, visited.

Rule II. Words ending with II generally drop one I before the terminations ness, less, ly, and full; as, fulness, skilless, fully, skilful.

Rule III. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i before an additional letter or syllable; as, spy, spies; happy, happier, happiest; carry, carrier, carried ; fancy, fanciful.

Exception I. But y is not changed before ing; as, deny, denying.

Exception II. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y unchanged; as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood.

Exceptions. Lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, said.

Other rules for spelling are encumbered with so many exceptions as to render them nearly useless. They are therefore omitted.