Analytical and practical grammar

Front matter

9> ANALYTICAL AND PEACTIOAL GEAMMAE.

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR

OF THE

Preface

It is now nearly a quarter of a century since the first publication of Dr. Bullions's "Principles of English Grammar." The history of that book, and of the " Analytical and Practical English Grammar" which followed it, has been contemporary with the progress we have made in mastering the principles, laws, and usages of the language itself; and it is safe to say that we are indebted to no one more than to the author of this treatise for the results that have been achieved.

Among the first to discuss the Analysis of Sentences, he has given a clear and succinct statement of the principles relating to this department, and reduced all elements, and even idioms, to a simple, yet comprehensive system.

This treatise is therefore not the work of a day, but the fruit of twenty-five years of intelligent thought, aided by the daily practical experience of the school-room.

In the present revised edition of the "Analytical and Practical English Grammar," the order of subjects, method and classification, which had given the former work such enviable reputation among a large class of our most successful teachers, have been for the most part retained. The language, even, has been generally preserved, and only such changes have been admitted as the present wants of the school-room seem to demand. It is hoped that the few alterations which have been thought necessary will enhance, rather than diminish, the value of the treatise as a text-book of practical grammar.

The most radical departures from the text of the author's edition have been made in the divisions of the verb, and the classification of sentences ; yet these present, in point of fact, little else than a change of nomenclature, — the distinctive characteristics, illustrations, and examples being retained.

Tables of the different parts of speech have been given, for the purpose of presenting to the eye of the learner, at one view, the distinctions which are more fully discussed under the separate heads.

Tabular classification of the analysis of the sentence have been presented, for the sake of greater clearness.

IV PREFACE,

The alterations which have been cautiously admitted in the phraseology of the rules of Syntax will, it is hoped, meet with favor.

The brief divisions of accent and structure of words in their places, pp. 16 and 18, and the fuller discussion in the Appendix (1) can not but enhance the value of the book, and afford facilities for a more intimate acquaintance with the integral structure of our language, to many who will have access to no other source of such information.

It is believed that little is omitted that would add value to this treatise as a text-book for general use, whilst much is presented, not found in books of its class, but so tersely and clearly stated, and so judiciously arranged, as not to make the volume cumbersome.

As to the general plan and scope of the work, the following, from the author's Preface, is suggestive : —

" The subject of the Analysis of Sentences * * * is here introduced in its proper place, and to an extent in accordance with its importance. Many questions on disputed points have been examined with much care; and something, it is hoped, has been done to contribute to their settlement : and when this required more space than was proper to be taken up in the body of the work, the discussion has been thrown into the Appendix. A variety of exercises has been introduced at every step, with directions for the manner of using them. To every part of speech, an oral exercise, of the inductive kind, has been annexed as a specimen of the way in which the mind of the learner may be trained to think and reason on the subject, and prepared to profit more by the exercises that follow.

" By adopting the plan of a running series of numbers to mark the paragraphs, reference from one part to another is rendered more convenient, and is employed wherever it was thought to be profitable.

" In the Syntax, * * * the rules are arranged so that all that belongs to one subject is collected under one head, instead of being scattered in different places ; and the proper subordination of parts is exhibited in a series of subordinate rules, wherever it was necessary. * * * In the rules and definitions throughout, accuracy, brevity, euphony, and adaptation to the practical operations of the school-room have been particularly attended to. No startling novelties have been introduced ; at the same time, where it was thought that a change would be an improvement, it has been made."

August, 1867.

Table Of Contents

PAGE.

Jktnguage. . . 3

Grammar, Definitions and Divisions 3

PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. Letters, Divisions and Power op 5

Elementary Sounds. 6

Phonetic Classification 3

Syllables „ 9

Spelling, Rules fob. 11

Capitals, Use of 14

Accent 16

PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. Words, General Divisions of IT

Structure of 18

Parsing of 22

Parts of Speech 23

Nouns, Definition and Division of 23

Table of, and Exercises 25

Accidents of 26

Person of — Observations on , 27

Gender of , 28

Number, Definition of 32

Plural, Eules for 32

Irregular 33

Plural of Proper Names 38

Case of, General Eules for 39, 40

Nominative, Use of 39

Possessive, Use of— how formed 39

Objective, Use of 40

Following Transitive Verbs 221

Prepositions 224

Without a Governing Word 226 yi COtfTE^TS.

PAGE.

Nouns, Inflection of 40

Oral Exercises on 41

Parsing of 42

Article, Parsing of 45

Adjectives, Definition of 4T

Division of 48

Table of 51

Comparison of 51

Eulesfor 52

Irregular Comparison 53

Not Compared 54

Parsing of 55

Oral Exercises on 56

Pronouns, Definition and Division of 58

Table of 59

Personal , 59

Simple 60

Declension of.. 61

Compound.. 64

Parsingof, and Oral Exexr««son 64

* Eelative 66

Inflection and Use of 61

Compound 69

Parsing of TO

Interrogative and Responsive . 72

Parsingof, and Exercises on..... 73

Adjective, Definition and Division of 74

Possessive 75

Distributive... 76

Demonstrative. 67

Indefinite 7T

Parsing of, and Exercises on 78

Verbs, Definition of 79

Classification of 80

Oral and other Exercises on 82

Formation of Tenses 83.

Auxiliary 83

Use of "Shall," "Will," etc 84

OOKTEtfTS. Vii

PAGE.

Verbs, Parsingof « ♦ 85

Auxiliary, Exercises on 85

Anomalous Use of 89

Inflection of ; Accidents of 90

Voice, Active , 90

Passive 90

Moods, Division of 93

Indicative 93

Potential 93

Subj unctive . 94

Construction of . 23T

Imperative 95

Infinitive 95

Tenses, Division of 96

Of the Indicative Mood 97-100

Of the Potential Mood 100

Of the Subjunctive Mood 101

Of the Imperative Mood. 103

Of the Infinitive Mood... 103

Connection of . 246

Paeticiples, Division of 104

In inig in a Passive Sense 105

as a Verbal Noun 10T

Number and Person of 107

Conjugation of 108

Table of 109

Of the Irregular Verb "to be" 112

Sentences — the Subject 11G

Of the Eegular Verb ** to love," Active Voice 117

Parsing of 1 oo

Oral Exercises and Exercises on.... 119

, The Objective Case 121

Negative Form . 123

Interrogative Form 124

Progressive Form 125

Pbogbessive Form, Exercises on 125

Passive Voice 126

Observations on, Exercises on 128, 129

Irregular, List of 130

Defective. v • 136

Impersonal 136

Adverbs, Definition of 133

Classification of 139

Conjunctive 140

Till COSTTE^TS,

PAG&

Adverbs f Formation and Derivation of 14$

Comparison of 6 142

Parsing of, and Exercises on 142

Prepositions, Definition 142

Table— List v , 145

Parsing of, and Exercises on 14T

Interjections, Definition and List of . 148

Conjunctions, Definition and Division of 14$

Conjunctions, Table of 150

Parsing of, and Exercises on 151,152

JPar$ing> Different Kinds of 15$

Etymological, Method of 15$

Model of 154

Exercises in 156-161

PAUT IIL— SYNTAX-

Sentences, Classification of. 16$

Elements of 165

Analysis of..... ' 166'

A Single Sentence, Its Parts. 16T

Subjectof 170

Modifications of. 172

Of ModifyingWords 17$

Predicate of 174

Modifications of 175

Limiting Clauses... 17T

Compound, Definition of. 180'

Members, Connection of 181

Analysis, Directions for ... 182

Models of 18$

Exercises in 18T

Construction of— General Principles 188

Mi/ntax, Parts of 189 s

RULES.

Mule I. — Substantives in Apposition 19$

Mule II, — Adjective with a Substantive 19(>

Comparatives and Superlatives 198

CONTENTS. IX

PAGE.

Mule III.— Article and its Noun 201

Mule IV,— Pronoun and its Antecedent— Special Rules 206

Mule V. — Relative and its Antecedent 209

Mule VI,— The Subject-Nominative 211

Mule VII* — The Nominative Absolute or Independent 213

Special Rules for 213

Mule VIII,— Tub Verb and its Subject 214

Special Rules for 215

Mule IX, — The Predicate-Nominative 219-

Mule X,— The Object after Transitive Verbs 221

Mule XL— Tub Objective after Prepositions 224

Mule XII,— Prepositions after Certain Words 228

Mule XIII, — Possessive Limiting Substantives 232

Mule XIV,— Subjunctive Mood 237

Mule XV, — Infinitive Mood . . . . 239

Mule XVI,— Participles. ., ;..... 242

Mule XVII,— Connection of Tenses .' 246

Mule XVIII.— Adverbs— Special Rules 249-251

Mule XIX, — Conjunctions 253

Mule XX,— Inter jections 25S

General Mule. ." 258

Ellipsis— When Admissible 260

When not Admissible 262

Parsing, Syntactical, Definition of, Model of 263

Egcercises, Promiscuous, on Rules of Syntax 266-269

Improper Expressions, List of .' 269, 270

Punctuation 270

Comma, Rules for 271

Semicolon, Rules for , 273

Colon, Rules for 274

Period 275

Interrogation 275

Other Marks used in Writing 276, 277

Figures, Different Kinds of 277

Of Etymology 278

Of Syntax 278

Of Rhetoric , 279

Poetic License 281-283

PART IV.— PROSODY. Division of 284

Elocution 284

Versification 285

X CONTENTS.

* PAGE,

Prosody, Versification, Feet . 285

Poetic Pauses 292

Composition . 293

The Use of Grammar in Composition 295

The Law of Language 295

Rules for 296,297

Hints fob Correct and Elegant Writing m 293

Themes for Composition 305

Appendix,

I.— Suffixes 30T

II.— Gender of Nouns 316

III.— The Pronouns, Mine, Thine, etc «... 31T

IY.— " What," as a Relative 318

y.— -"As" as a Relative. '. 319

VI.— Adjective Pronouns 320

V1L— The Verb 322

VIII.— Division of Verbs 323

IX.— Passive Participle 324

X.— First and Second 330

XI.— Two First, Three Last, etc 331

XII.— Abbreviations J 338

XIII.— Foreign Words 836

Introduction

Befobe a text-book is put into the hands of the pupil, he is already in practical possession of the elements of his mother-tongue. Grammar should supplement this practical knowledge, by reducing it to fixed laws ; classifying its elements, and establishing canons of criticism for the preservation of the purity of its forms, and giving power and elegance to expression.

A series of preparatory exercises in a simple, and, at the first, somewhat informal, manner, both in the discussion of the meaning and use of words in familiar sentences, and in the construction of such sentences, will be found of incalculable value, as tending to awaken a definite interest in mastering the successive steps of the science. These exercises should develop at least —

I, The meanings and uses of the " constriiction-tvords" of the language, as —

1. Such verbs as do, he, have, may, can, shall, etc., that are so closely connected with our existence, our experiences of the external world, and our modes of thought and speech in regard thereto. The words of this class have a conventional use, not for themselves, but chiefly as aids in expressing the relations of ideas represented by other words. Thus, in the expression, " Grass is green," the use of is is not to express existence, for that is assumed, but to indicate relation. So, do means to act, and it is hence used to strengthen or give emphasis to the expression of another act ; as, " I do desire." Save means to possess, own, etc., and in some sense, it never loses this force, even as an " auxiliary." [See discussion of the auxiliaries, 329, et seq.]

2. The meaning and force of connectives; as —

(1.) Conjunct ions, — And means added, in addition to; hut, separation, and the like.

(2.) Prepositions, or words that relate by expressing a limitation ; as — " The bock is on the table." — " The book is under the table." — " The book is heside the table." — " He went to the house, front the house, into the house," etc.

In the same grammatical structure, the force of the phrase depends upon the meaning of the particles on, under, beside, etc.

II, The Nature of the Sentence. — Grammatical distinctions, of words merely, are of little account, save as they lead to correct forms of speech in accordance with the laws of language.

* INTRODUCTION.

1. It may be readily shown by simple illustration — (1.) That every word is the sign of an idea.

(2.) That related ideas are expressed by related words.

(3.) That a judgment of the mind may be put into the form of a proposition, and that such proposition is expressed by a sentence.

Every sentence consists of two parts — (1.) The word or phrase that names the subject of thought ; (2.) The word or form of words that affirms or tells something of the subject ; and this is a universal law

After a clear exemplification of this by a sufficient number of examples, the pupils may have practical exercises in framing sentences — second parts for given first parts ; and first parts of which given second parts may be predicated.

2. It will be found of interest, not only as leading to a more critical understanding of the use of language, but as a preparation for the classification of verbs, to show the three forms of sentences, by the nature and use of their principal verbs, thus —

(a.) " Horses eat grass." — (&.) " Birds fly." — (c.) "Sugar is sweet."

In the first of these, the meaning of the affirming verb is such that the act can not be done without involving the existence of some person or thing as receiving it.

In the second, the meaning is satisfied by naming the actor and the act.

In the third, the chief office of the verb is to connect an attribute, expressing some quality or circumstance of the subject. See Syntax, Classification of Sentences.

' III. The relation of words in a phrase or sentence follows the order of the relation of the ideas which they express.

1. Words may be united without any sign; as, good boy, horse runs.

2. In a few instances the inflection is the sign of relation; as children's shoes.

3. When words have no neural relation, they may be put in relation by another ivord ; as, " love of country," " grass is green," " John and James study," etc. At the proper time, a classification may be made of these distinctions.

IV. It should always be borne in mind, that, in order to the intelligent study of Grammar, whose office it is to teach " to speak and write correctly," pupils must be constantly exercised in this practical use, that the principles which the Grammar teaches may be practically exemplified, and power be gained in their application.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1. Language is the means "by which we express our thoughts.

2. Grammar treats of the laws of language, and the right method of using it.

Grammar is both a Science and an Art.

As a Science, it investigates the principles of language in general : as an Art, it teaches the right method of applying these principles to a particular language, so as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and proper manner, according to established usage.

3. English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety.

4z. Language is either spoken or written.

5. The elements of spoken language, are vocal and articulate sounds. (25 and 26).

6. The elements of written language are characters or letters which represent these sounds.

7. Letters are formed into syllables and words : words into sentences ; and by these, properly uttered or written, men communicate their thoughts to one another.

8. Grammar is divided into four parts : Ortliography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

9. Orthography treats of letters and syllables ; Etymology, of words ; Syntax, of sentences ; Prosody, of elocution and versification.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Part I. Orthography

10. Orthography treats of letters, and of the mode of combining them into syllables and words. *

11. A Letter is a mark, or character, used to represent an elementary sound of the human yoice.

12. There are Twenty- six letters in the English Alphabet.

13. Letters are either Vowels or Consonants.

14:. A Vowel is a letter which represents an unobstructed sound (25) ; and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. The vowels are a 9 e 9 i 9 o 9 u 9 and w and y not before a vowel sounded in the same syllable, as in law, hay.

15. A Consonant is a letter which represents an obstructed sound (26) ; and, in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but always in connection with a vowel. The consonants are b 9 c 9 d 9 f 9 g 9 h 9 j 9 U 9 l 9 ni 9 n, j) 9 q 9 r 9 s 9 t 9 v 9 oc 9 z 9 and w and y before a vowel sounded in the same syllable, as in war, youth.

[Properly speaking, w and y are always vowels, and represent respectively the sounds of oo and e, as icO&h. (oo-ish), yet (e-et). They are sometimes called coalescents].

16. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound, as oi, in oil ; ou, in found.

17. When a letter in a word is not used in pronunciation, it is called a Silent letter, as h in 7iouy ; a in bread ; e in mate.

* Orthography is properly a part of Grammar, as it belongs to " the art of speaking and writing a language with propriety." Yet as the whole subject is treated more fully in the spelling-book and dictionary, a brief synopsis of its principles only is here given, rather as a matter of form, than with a view to its being particularly studied at this stage. The teacher may therefore, if he thinks proper, pass over Part I. for the present, and begin with Part II.

OKTHOGRAPHY — LETTERS, 5

18. A. union of two vowels in the same syllable, only one of whichis sounded, is called a digraph, and sometimes, an improper diph thong, as oa in boat ; ou in court,

19. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound, as eau in beauty.

The Powers of Letters.

20. In analyzing words into their elementary sounds, it is necessary to distinguish between the name of a letter and its power.

21. The name of a letter is that by which it is usually called ; as A, be, se, de, etc.

22. The power of a letter is the effect which *it has, either by itself, or combined with other letters, in forming a word or syllable.

23. Each of the vowels has several powers. Several letters have the same power ; and certain powers or elements of words are represented by a combination of two letters.

24:. The elementary powers or sounds in the English language are about forty-three, and are primarily divided into unobstructed sounds or Vocals, represented by vowels and diphthongs ; and obstructed sounds (Subvocals and Aspirates), represented by consonants, single or combined.

25. Vocals or tonics are unobstructed sounds produced by the organs of voice, with the mouth more or less open, and with no change, or but slight change, of position in the organs of speech.

20. Subvocals or subtonics are sounds produced by the organs of voice, obstructed or modified by certain changes in the position of the organs of speech.

27. Aspirates or atonies are mere whispering sounds without vocality, but which still have an audible effect in the enunciation of words. They are all obstructed except h.

28. The elementary powers of letters can not be exhibited to the eye, but must be learned from the living voice.

20. The name of a vowel is always one of its powers (except w and y), and if from the name of a consonant, we take away the vowel sound, what remains is generally the power of that consonant.

SO. A full view of the elementary powers of letters in the forma-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

tion of words, is exhibited in the following table. In the words annexed as examples, the letter whose power is indicated is printed in Italic. By pronouncing the word distinctly, and then leaving out all but the power of the Italic letter, and uttering that alone, we have the power of that letter.

81. Elementary Sounds in the English Language.

Table I.

VOCALS.

SUBVOCALS.

ASPERATES.

A.

ale, able*

B.

h&t, orb.

F.

fix.

A.

art.

D.

do, did.

H.

Irat.

A.

gall.

a.

gone, dog.

K.

jfeeep, boofe.

A.

at.

J.

judge.

P.

^en, top.

A.

ask.

L.

lie.

S.

sun.

E.

me.

M.

tl&an.

T.

fop, bal.

E.

met, egg.

N.

tio.

Th.

faith.