The ethics of Hobbes

Preface

The ethical and political philosophy of Hobbes are so intimately related that they cannot really be separated. In consequence of this, the extracts from his writings, which form the major part of this volume, have been chosen with reference to a study of both. To this end Parts I. and II. of Leviathan, and Chapters VI. and VII. of De Corpore Politico, have been selected. The extracts from the De Corpore Politico deal with the main subject discussed in Part III. of Leviathan, but in a much more summary manner ; hence the substitution. The book thus constructed is designed for use in classes in the History of Ethics and the History of Political Science, where these subjects are studied according to the method contemplated by the "Series" to which this book belongs. Portions of Part I. of Leviathan, which deal with the Psychology and Logic of Hobbes, have been retained for the purpose of adapting the book also for use in courses in the History of Philosophy. Chapters I.-IX. deal chiefly with these subjects, and may be omitted by the student who is merely interested in the ethical and political speculations of Hobbes, especially since the psychological basis of these speculations is mainly contained in the chapters following. The text of this volume is based on Sir Wm. Molesworth's

VI EDITOR'S PROSPECTUS.

prevailed in the past. Instruction in the History of Ethics, like instruction in the History of Philosophy, has largely been based on text-books or lectures giving expositions of, and information about, the various systems. Such methods, although serviceable, are not as stimulating and helpful as those which put the student in direct contact with the text of the author, enabling him to study the system itself rather than to study about the system. Undoubtedly the best plan would be to have the student read the entire work of the author, but all teachers will probably concede the impracticability of this in undergraduate work, if a number of systems is to be studied, which is usually desirable. Only inferior, in my judgment, to the best, but impracticable plan is the plan of the "Ethical Series," — to study selections or extracts from the original works, embodying the substance of the system. The " Series " makes provision for such work in a convenient and comparatively inexpensive manner. That the plan of instruction on which the " Series" is based is in the interest of better scholarship, I am assured by my own experience, and by that of many other teachers in the leading colleges of the country, with whom I have communicated. It is with the earnest hope of facilitating instruction and study in the History of Ethics that this Series is issued.

E. HERSHEY SNEATH.

Yale University.

Table Of Contents

PAGE

Bibliography . . . . xi

Introduction i

Part I. — Of Man. Chapter

I. Of Sense 47

II. Of Imagination . 49

III. Of the Consequence or Train of Imaginations 55

IV. Of Speech 61

V. Of Reason and Science 71

VI. Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Motions; commonly called the Passions; and

the Speeches by which they are expressed . 78

VII. Of the Ends, or Resolutions of Discourse . 90 VIII. Of the Virtues commonly called Intellectual,

and their contrary Defects .... 93

IX. Of the Several Subjects of Knowledge . . 106 X. Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honour, and

Worthiness * > 107 vin TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE

XI. Of the difference of Manners . . . .118 XII. Of Religion

XIII. Of the Natural Condition of Mankind as concerning their Felicity, and Misery . . 139

XIV. Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of Contracts 145

XV. Of other Laws of Nature 157

XVI. Of Persons, Authors, and Things Personated . 171 -

Part II. — Of Commonwealth

XVII. Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a

Commonwealth 177

XVIII. Of the Rights of Sovereigns by Institution . 182 XIX. Of the Several Kinds of Commonwealth by Institution, and of Succession to the Sovereign Power 192

XX. Of Dominion Paternal, and Despotical . . 203

XXI. Of the Liberty of Subjects 213

XXII. Of Systems Subject, Political, and Private . 224

XXIII. Of the Public Ministers of Sovereign Power . 238

XXIV. Of the Nutrition, and Procreation of a Com-

monwealth 243

XXV. Of Counsel 250

XXVI. Of Civil Laws 259

XXVII. Of Crimes, Excuses, and Extenuations . . 281

XXVIII. Of Punishments and Rewards .... 298 XXIX. Of those things that weaken, or tend to the

Dissolution of a Commonwealth . . . 307

XXX. Of the Office of the Sovereign Representative 319

XXXI. Of the Kingdom of God by Nature . . . 336

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

IX

FROM "DE CORPORE POLITICO."

PART II.

CHAPTER PAGE

VI. A Difficulty concerning Absolute Subjection to Man, arising from our Absolute Subjection to God Almighty, Propounded, etc 353

VII. The Question Propounded, Who are the Magistrates in the Kingdom of Christ, etc. 369

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

On the Life of Hobbes.

i. T. Hobbes ; or dictated by Hobbes to T. Rymer, T. Hobbes Malmesburiensis Vita (written in Latin).

2. R. Blackbourne, Vitae Hobbianae Auctarium (written in

Latin).

3. T. Hobbes, Thomae Hobbes Malmesburiensis Vita Carmine

Expressa (written in Latin verse), 1679-80. [The above accounts of the life of Hobbes were published together in 1 68 1, by R. Blackbourne. They are all contained in Wm. Molesworth's edition of Hobbes's Latin Works referred to below, Vol. I.]

4. J. Aubrey, Life of Th. Hobbes of Malmesbury, printed in his

Letters, and Lives of Eminent Men, 1813.

5. G. C. Robertson, Hobbes, Philadelphia and Edinburgh, 1886.

6. F. Tonnies, Hobbes, Leben und Lehre, Stuttgart, 1896.

II. Works of Hobbes

1. Gul. Molesworth, Thomae Hobbes Malmesburiensis Opera

2. Sir Wm. Molesworth, The English Works of Thomas

Hobbes of Malmesbury ; now first collected and edited by Sir William Molesworth, Bart, London, 1841, xil BIBLIOGRAPHY.

3. For information concerning the various early editions of the

individual works of Hobbes, refer to the Vitae Hobbianae Auctarium, by R. Blackbourne, Latin Works, Vol. I., pp. lxv ff.

4. For a list of the various translations of individual works of

Hobbes, consult the Bibliography appended to G. C. Robertson's article on Hobbes in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed.

5. The ethical and political philosophy of Hobbes is contained

mainly in the following works :

De Cive, which appeared later under the title of Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society.

Human Nature ; or, The Fundamental Elements of Policy.

De Corpore Politico ; or, The Elements of Law, Moral and Politic.

Leviathan ; or, the Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil.

Other works bearing on his ethical and political philosophy are :

De Homine.

Of Liberty and Necessity.

Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance.

Dialogue of the Common Laws.

Behemoth : The History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England, and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to 1660.

III. Expository and Critical Works

For a list of such works published shortly after the appearance of Hobbes's Political Treatises, consult Molesworth's edition of the Latin Works, Vol. I., pp. lxii-lxxx. Other expository and critical works are as follows :

1. Sir R. Filmer, Observations upon Mr. Hobbes's Leviathan, etc., 1652.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. xni

2. T. Tenison, The Creed of Mr. Hobbes, examined in a

feigned Conference between him and a Student of Divinity, London, 1670-71.

3. J. Eachard, Mr. Hobbes's State of Nature considered in a

Dialogue between Philautus and Timothy, London, 1672; also, Some Opinions of Mr. Hobbes considered in a Second Dialogue, London, 1673.

sophica, etc., London, 1672. English ed. by J. Maxwell, London, 1 714-15.

5. E. Hide (Lord Clarendon), Brief Survey of the dangerous

and pernicious Errors to Church and State in Mr. Hobbes's book entitled Leviathan, London, 1674.

6. J. Bramhall, Castigations of Mr. Hobbes, etc. ; also, The

Catching of Leviathan, Works, Dublin, 1676. Works published in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology.

7. R. Cudworth, The True Intellectual System of the Uni-

verse, London, 1678; also, Treatise concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality, London, 1 731.

8. A. A. Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury), Characteristics of Men,

Manners, Opinions, and Times, Vol. II., 171 1. London,

9. J. Butler, Sermons, London, 1726.

10. S. Clarke, A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, etc. ; also, A Discourse concerning the unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian Revelation, Works, Dublin, 1734.

n. Wm. Warburton, Divine Legation of Moses, London, 1738 ; with Hurd's Preface, 10th ed., London, 1846.

12. James Mackintosh, Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical

Philosophy, chiefly during the 17th and 18th Centuries, American ed., Philadelphia, 1832, § IV.

13. Henry Hallam, Introduction to the Literature of Europe,

1839, VoL III-j chap. 4.

14. B. Disraeli, Miscellanies of Literature, New York, 1841,

XIV BIBLIOGRAPHY.

16. Wm. Whewell, History of Moral Philosophy in England,

London, 1852, Lect. II.

17. Robert Blakey, The History of Political Literature,

London, 1855, Vol. II., §3, chap. 2.

18. Paul Janet, Histoire de la Philosophic Moral et Politique,

Paris, i860, Tome II., Livre 4, chaps. 1 and 2.

19. Th. Jouffroy, Introduction to Ethics, trans, by W. H.

Channing, Boston, 1867, Lect. XI.

20. A. Bain, Mental and Moral Philosophy, London, 1868, pp.

543-556.

21. John Hunt, Religious Thought in England, etc., London,

1870, Vol. I., chap. VI.

22. Henry Calderwood, Hand-Book of Moral Philosophy,

London, 1872, Div. II., chap. 2.

23. John Tulloch, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy

in England in the Seventeenth Century, Edinburgh and London, 1872, Vol. II., pp. 25-30 ; also pp. 293- 299.

24. Francis Lieber, Manual of Political Ethics, Philadelphia

and London, 1875, Vol. I., Bk. II., chap. 8.

25. Sir H. S. Maine, Lectures on the Early History of Institu-

tions, London, 1875, Lects. XII. and XIII.

26. T. D. Woolsey, Political Science; or, The State, etc., New

27. Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence, Oxford, 1880.

28. Sir F. Pollock, Spinoza, His Life and Philosophy, London,

1880, chap. X.; also, An Introduction to the History of the Science of Politics, London and New York, 1890, Pts. II. and III.

29. G. S. Morris, British Thought and Thinkers, Chicago, 1880,

chap. VI.

30. L. Carran, La Morale Utilitaire, Paris, Pt. I., Lvr. I., § 3,

chap. I

BIBLIOGRAPHY. XV

31. F. Jodl, Geschichte der Ethik in der Neueren Philosophic,

Stuttgart, 1882, I. Band, IV. Cap.

32. J. K. Bluntschli, The Theory of the State, trans, by D. G.

Ritchie and others, Oxford, 1885, Bk. IV., chaps. 6 and 9.

33. J. Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory, 2d ed., Oxford

and New York, 1886, Vol. II., Bk. II., chap. 1.

34. W. L. Courtney, Constructive Ethics, London, 1886, Pt. II.,

Bk. I., chap. 2.

35. G. C. Robertson, Hobbes (Blackwood's Phil. Classics),

Edinburgh, 1886 ; also, Article on Hobbes in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XII.

36. H. Sidgwickj/, Outlines of the History of Ethics, 2d ed.,

London arid New York, 1888, pp. 162-169.

37. F. Tonnies, Preface and Critical Notes to Hobbes's The

Elements of Law, Natural and Political, etc., with extracts from unpublished MSS. of Hobbes, London, 1888; also Hobbes, Leben und Lehre, Stuttgart, 1896.

38. J. Bonar, Philosophy and Political Economy in some of

their Historical Relations, London and New York, 1893, Bk. II., chap. 3, and other references.

39. D. G. Ritchie, Darwin and Hegel, London and New York,

1893, chaps. VII. and VIII. ; also, various references in Natural Rights, London and New York, 1895.

40. G. Lyon, La Philosophic de Hobbes, Paris, 1893.

41. Willoughby, The State, New York, 1896, chaps. IV. and V.

New York, 1895, chap. IV.

IV

The following works on the History of Philosophy may be consulted with advantage :

1. Buhle, Geschichte der Neueren Philosophic, Gottingen, 1802,

2. J. D. Morrel, History of Modern Philosophy, 2d ed.,

London, 1847.

xvi BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1875, III. Band, II. Cap.

Geschichte der Philosophic, Leipzig, 1879, "Hobbes," p. 388.

6. G. H. Lewes, The Biographical History of Philosophy,

7. J. E. Erdmann, A History of Philosophy, edited by W. S.

Hough, London and New York, 1890, Vol. I., pp. 706-721.

8. B. C. Burt, A History of Modern Philosophy, Chicago,

9. R. Falckenberg, History of Modern Philosophy, trans, by

A. C. Armstrong, jr., New York, 1893, pp. 71-79.

10. W. Windelband, A History of Philosophy, trans, by J. H.

Tufts, New York and London, 1893, Pt. IV., chap. 2.

11. A. Weber, History of Philosophy, trans, by F. Thilly, New

V

The following works may be consulted with reference to the subject of the relation of Hobbes's Ethical and Political Philosophy to the political conditions of his time :

1. L. v. Ranke, History of England, Oxford, 1875, Vol. III.,

Bk. XL, chap. 1, also Bk. XV., chap. 12.

2. D. Masson, The Life of John Milton : Narrated in connection

with the Political, Ecclesiastical and Literary History of his Time, London, 1881-94. Consult the "Index Volume."

3. S. R. Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth and Protec-

torate, London and New York, 1894-97, Vol. I., chaps. 2 and 7, also Vol. II., chaps. 18 and 24.

Introduction

i.

Biographical Sketch.

Thomas Hobbes was born in Westport, England, April 5, 1588. In his metrical autobiography he refers to his birth as follows :

He was the son of Rev. Thomas Hobbes, vicar of Charlton and Westport. When four years of age he was sent to school at Westport. Four years later he went to Malmesbury School, and shortly afterward attended a private school in Westport. In 1602-3 ne entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, receiving his bachelor's degree Feb. 5, 1607-8. These five years spent at Oxford were years of great political and ecclesiastical strife, and undoubtedly had much to do in determining the future conduct of Thomas Hobbes. The curriculum was still dominated by scholastic influences and had very little attraction for him. In the year of his graduation he was engaged by William Cavendish, afterward Earl of Devonshire, as companion for his eldest son. In 1610 Hobbes went to the Continent with his young master. He was especially impressed during his travels by the great interest manifested in the study of physical science. Returning to England, the next eighteen years find him devoting himself to classical study. Availing himself of the advantages afforded by the library of the Earl of Devonshire, he made a careful study of the Greek poets and historians. The outcome of these studies was a translation of Thucydides, published in 1628; also a translation of Homer. His relation to distinguished men of letters constitutes another interesting feature of this period of his life. Through his master he became acquainted with Lord Bacon, who found in him a very congenial acquaintance. He also associated with Edward Herbert, later Baron of Cherbury, founder of the deistic movement in England ; also with Ben Jonson and Sir Robert Ayton.

In 1628 his companion and master, the young earl, died. This caused a decided change in the affairs of Hobbes. After remaining several months with the family of his late master, in 1629 he accepted an invitation to go to the Continent as traveling tutor to Sir Gervase Clifford's son. During this visit abroad Hobbes was for the first time brought into contact with Euclid's Elements. This fact is of great interest when we remember the prevalence of the mathematical method involved in the philosophy of nature of the time and the influence of this method on Hobbes's later philosophical thinking. He also at this time became more or less interested in the subject of motion, which was receiving much attention in scientific circles. In 1631, while studying in Paris, he accepted an invitation to become tutor to the young son of his late master, the Earl of Devonshire. In 1634, in company with the young earl, he made his third visit to the Continent. They traveled through France and Italy, finally returning to France. Hobbes took up his abode in Paris, where he remained eight months. This third visit was one of exceptional interest to him. In Italy he became intimately acquainted with the renowned Galileo. There also he met Beregardus. In such company his interest in physical science was greatly quickened and his knowledge of recent scientific discoveries and investigations greatly enlarged. After returning to Paris, through the kind offices of Pere Marsenne, he was admitted to a circle of scientific men. To fully appreciate the effect of association with these men of science on Hobbes's future thinking, we must take into consideration the nature of the new philosophy which was being promulgated at that time. Galileo had discovered the laws of motion and had announced all physical phenomena to be explainable on the basis of moving matter and its laws. This explanation had been quite generally accepted by scientific men. It resulted in the mechanical conception of nature which not only dominated the physical science of the time but also greatly influenced the philosophy of nature of the leading continental philosophers of the seventeenth century. This view of nature greatly interested Hobbes, and it was not long before, in his own mind, he was applying the principles of the mechanical philosophy to other phenomena than those of nature. He soon beheld all phenomena, physical, mental, and social, comprehended in one general system and explainable on the basis of motion and its laws. As Falckenberg says with reference to Hobbes's philosophy : " Mechanism applied to the world gives materialism ; applied to knowledge, sensationalism of a mathematical type ; applied to the will, determinism ; to morality and the state, ethical and political naturalism." 1

In 1637 he returned to England. He found his native country becoming more and more involved in political and ecclesiastical strife. The estrangement between the king and Parliament was becoming more decided ; the controver-

1 History of Modern Philosophy, trans., p. 72.

sies concerning the relations between civil and spiritual power w r ere becoming more intense. In 1640 he wrote a "little treatise," expressing his political views. In it he attempted to vindicate the supremacy of the royal prerogative. The " little treatise " was circulated rather freely in manuscript form, and, according to Hobbes's own opinion, he incurred the hostility of the leaders of Parliament by it. He continued to ventilate his political views, and, feeling himself in danger, he fled to Paris, where, rejoining the scientific circle, he remained eleven years. In 1641 he wrote the De Cive in Latin, a work treating of the origin, nature, and power of civil government. In this work the absoluteness of sovereignty is advocated. Only a small number of copies was printed in 1642. The next three years were spent largely in scientific study. In 1647 a new edition of the De Cive was published in Amsterdam, bearing the title Ehmenta Philosophica de Cive, the date of dedication being 1641-46. The Preface to this edition indicates the circumstances which impelled not only its publication but doubtless also the publication of the previous edition.

He says, in the " Preface to the Reader " of the Philosophical Rudiments conce?-ni?ig Government and Society, which is an English translation of the De Cive : "I was studying Philosophy for my mind sake, and I had gathered together its first elements in all kinds ; and having digested them into three sections by degrees, I thought to have written them, so as in the first I would have treated of Body and its general properties ; in the second, of Man and his special faculties and affections ; in the third, of Civil Government and the duties of subjects. Wherefore the first section would have contained the First Philosophy, and certain elements of Physic ; in it we would have considered the reasons of Time, Place, Cause, Power, Relation, Proportion, Quantity, Figure, and Motion. In the second we would have been conversant about Imagination, Memory, Intellect, Ratiocination, Appetite, Will, Good and Evil, Honest and Dishonest. . . . Whilst I contrive, order, pensively and slowly compose these matters (for I do only reason, I dispute not) ; it so happens in the interim, that my country, some few years before the Civil Wars did rage, was boiling hot with questions concerning the rights of dominion, and the obedience due from subjects, the true forerunners of an approaching war ; and was the cause which, all those other matters deferred, ripened and plucked from me this third part. Therefore it happens that what was last in order, is yet come forth first in time. And the rather because I saw that, grounded on its own principles sufficiently known by experience, it would not stand in need of the former sections. 1

In 1646 he was appointed instructor in mathematics to the Prince of Wales, who was then in Paris. In 1650, after the Revolution, his "little treatise," previously referred to, was published in two parts. The first part was entitled Human Nature, or The Fundamental Elements of Policy. The second part, published later, was entitled De Corpore Politico, or The Elements of Law, Moral and Politic. A translation of the De Cive, under the title Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society, followed in 1 65 1. According to Aubrey's papers, this translation was made by Hobbes himself. This same year witnessed the publication of his Leviathan, which was really projected as early as 1642 and written in the interim. The full title of the work is Leviathan ; or, The Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. In it Hobbes represents the commonwealth to be an artificial man ; " though of greater stature and strength than the natural, for whose protection and defence it was intended." In it, he says, " the sovereignty is an artificial soul, as

1 See also De Cive, Praefatio ad Lectores.

giving life and motion to the whole body ; the magistrates, and other officers of judicature and execution, artificial joints; reward and punishment, by which fastened to the seat of the sovereignty every joint and member is moved to perform his duty, are the nerves, that do the same in the body natural ; the wealth and riches of all the particular members, are the strength ; salus popnli, the people's safety, its business ; counsellors, by whom all things needful for it to know are suggested unto it, are the memory ; equity, and laws, an artificial reason and will; concord, health; sedition, sickness; and civil war, death. Lastly, the pacts and covenants, by which the parts of this body politic were at first made, set together and united, resemble that fiat, or the let us make man, pronounced by God in the creation." 1 The description of this commonwealth or artificial man involves the consideration of the following : " First, the matter thereof, and the artificer ; both which is man. Secondly, how, and by what covenants it is made ; what are the rights and just power or authority of a sovereign ; and what it is that preserveth or dissolveth it. Thirdly, what is a Christian commonwealth. Lastly, what is the kingdom of darkness." 2 A copy of the Leviathan, beautifully written on vellum, was presented to the young prince, later Charles II. 3 Robertson interestingly and accurately describes the effect produced by this famous work of Hobbes. He says : "The effect of the book at home will appear through all Hobbes's later years. Abroad, it soon brought about a great change in his own position. That he himself considered his personal loyalty impeached by anything he had penned could not be more completely disproved than it is. As he had made no secret beforehand of his wish to return

1 Leviathan, Int. 2 Ibid.

3 A description of this manuscript copy is given in the January number of the Gentleman's Magazine for 1813.

home, so he now showed no unseemly haste to be gone, but for months still continued to share the fortunes and mix in the society of the royalist exiles. Nay, when the young king of the Scots escaped to Paris (about the end of October) after the defeat at Worcester, Hobbes felt himself at perfect liberty to present to the royal fugitive, fresh from the crushing disaster, a specially prepared manuscript copy of his book, 'engrossed' (says Clarendon) 'in vellum in a marvellous fair hand' — an odd proceeding in a conscious traitor. But if he thought that he still stood where he had stood before, there were others that thought differently. It is, indeed, sufficiently absurd to find Clarendon declaring, in almost the same breath with his mention of the gift to the king, that the book was written to support Cromwell's usurpation. This particular charge, afterward commonly current, though refuted by Clarendon's own admission, could not have occurred to any one as early as 1651, when Cromwell was still the servant of the Rump. Nothing, however, could be more natural than that a book like Leviathan should awake suspicion and dislike in the minds of royalists, then at the lowest depths of despair. The^exiled clergy in particular, rendered critical by misfortune, and meeting in the book much that jarred upon their honest religious convictions, much, also, that was incomprehensible to their unreasonable loyalty, and, above all, a vein of deep distrust of clerical ambition with an imposing scheme for the utter subjection of spiritual to civil authority, could not but be affected to indignation in every fiber of their being. Accordingly, as different accounts agree in stating, some of them lost no time in working upon the mind of the prince on his return, and for the moment they were able to prevail upon his easy nature. When Hobbes, soon after making his present, sought to pay his respects in person to his former pupil, he was denied the royal presence, and was told by the Marquis of Ormond that he lay under grave

8 INTR OD UC TWA'.

charges of disloyalty and atheism. Thus deprived of the prince's protection, Hobbes, ever full of fears, at once saw himself exposed to a twofold peril. The royalist party, he well knew, counted in its ranks desperadoes who could slay — who had newly slain two defenceless envoys of the commonwealth, Doreslaus at The Hague, and Ascham at Madrid. And there was another danger not to be slighted even by a man less prone to terror. The French clerical authorities, made aware of the contents of Leviathan, and exasperated by such an open and unsparing assault (no longer a masked attack, as in the De Cive) on the Papal system, were moving (as Clarendon again bears confirmatory witness) to arraign the foreign offender. No course seemed left to Hobbes but sudden and secret flight. After a self-imposed exile of eleven years, cast out in the end by his own party, and a fugitive from religious hate, he could turn only to his native country, which he had been so ready to desert, and seek protection from the revolutionary government which he had sacrificed everything to oppose." 1

In 1 65 1 Hobbes returned to England. He took up his abode in London and devoted himself mainly to literary work. In 1655 he published De Corpore, containing, for the most part, his views on First Philosophy and Physics. In 1656 an English translation of De Corpore appeared with an appendix of "Six Lessons" written in connection with a mathematical controversy with Professor John Wallis. In 1658 he published De Ho7iiine, a psychological treatise, the major portion of which is devoted to optics. He had already, as we have seen, published his works De Cive and Leviathan, so that his philosophical system was now essentially developed. It represented in this practically complete form essentially what he had in mind as indicated in the preface to the De Cive, part of which has already been quoted, viz. : the division of Philosophy into three parts; Part I, treating of "Body and its general properties "; Part II, treating of " Man and his special faculties and affections''; and Part III, treating of "Civil Government and the duties of subjects."

Hobbes remained in England from 165 1, the time of his return from France, until 1679, the date of his death. Daring C r om well's- - rule he lived peacefully, having submitted to the government. After the Restoration in 1660, the king, Charles II., his former pupil, who had been alienated from Hobbes by charges of disloyalty and atheism made by others against him, again granted his favor to Hobbes. He was made welcome at the court and was granted a pension by the king. His path, however, was not altogether smooth. He experienced much annoyance at the hands of the clergy, who took exceptions to his religious and ecclesiastical views — especially as contained in the Leviathan. Furthermore, this closing period of his life brought him into a number of controversies involving much unpleasantness. One of these was with Dr. Bramhall, Bishop of Londonderry. In 1654, in answer to a discourse of the bishop's, he published his work entitled Of Liberty and Necessity, the subject of the controversy being especially the question of the freedom of the will. The controversy continued, and in 1656 Hobbes published Questio?is concerning Liberty, Necessity, a?id Chance, again in answer to the bishop. The position on this question taken by Hobbes in this controversy is defined in the following words : " I conceive that nothing taketh beginning from itself, but from the action of some other immediate agent without itself. And that therefore, when first a man hath an appetite or will to something, to which immediately before he had no appetite nor will, the cause of his will is not the will itself, but something else not in his own disposing. So that whereas it is out of controversy, that of voluntary actions the will is the fiecessary cause, and by

I o INTR OD UC TION.

this, which is said, the will is also caused by other things whereof it disposeth not, it followeth, that voluntary actions have all of them necessary causes, and therefore are necessitated." x