Elements of moral philosophy

Chapter II. Moral Law

SECTION I. — Wayland's definition : its defects— The difference between moral and physical law — Correct definition of moral law — -God the establish er — Attributes of moral law 28

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VI CONTENTS.

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SECTION II.— Retribution — Definition— Universality of the idea — Coleridge — Cousin — Theory of natural consequences : objections to it — Theory that it is always administered for the sake of reformation: objections to it — True theory 33

Chapter III. Moral Agency

SECTION I. — Requisites of moral agency — Intellect : why requisite — Sensibilities : argument to show they are needed — Classification of sensibilities — Appetites : true doctrine of the appetites ? 37

SECTION II. — Propensities, or desires : classification — Desire of life : its nature, universality, design, moral character, connection with Christianity — Desire of knowledge : its nature and design — Desire of property — Desire of power — Desire of esteem : its universality : the effect of recklessness — Desire of society: its design — Desire of imitation: its universality: caution to parents — Desire of happiness : importance of this principle. 43

SECTION III. — The affections: difference between affections and propensities — Classification — Their general design 48

SECTION IV. — Conscience: arguments to prove the existence of a natural conscience — Objections stated and answered — Finney's analysis of conscience — Etymology of the word — Functions of conscience — Supremacy of conscience — Error to be avoided., t 49

SECTION V. — Erroneous views of conscience — President Mahan's view — Objections to this view — Theory of the Rev. Hub-

CONTENTS. Vll

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bard Winslow — Objections to this theory — Concluding reflections on the conscience G8

SECTION VI.— The will : definition of the will— Freedom of the will — Arguments to establish its freedom — Opinions of celebrated writers — Importance of the doctrine — Fatalism runs into atheism — Quotation from Fichte — Strength of the will — Its capacity for good or evil— Cultivation of the will — The doctrine of motives.. £ , 74

SECTION VII.— Light : its sources— The light of nature— The light of revelation , 86

Chapter IV. Moral Obligation

Definition of moral obligation — Foundation of moral obligation — True theory given and established — Conditions of obligation — Extent of obligation — Belief— Principles — Habits — Intentions « 97

Chapter V Moral Conduct

SECTION I, — Definition of moral conduct — Theory of morals — Mandeville's theory : objections — Wollaston's theory : objections to Wollaston's theory — Hume's theory: objections to Hume — Selfish theory : arguments against the selfish system — Theory of disinterested benevolence : objections — Theory of sympathy: objections 117

Vlll CONTENTS.

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SECTION II. — True theory of morals — Virtue denned — Inseparable from the agent — When it shines most brightly — Hope of reward and fear of punishment, characteristics of virtue — Arguments to prove the theory true 137

SECTION III.— Criteria of moral conduct 145 - CHAPTER VI

MORAL GOVERNMENT.

SECTION I. — Moral government — Physical government — Evidences of physical government — Evidences of moral government — Analysis of moral government — Necessity of moral government 148

SECTION II. — God the moral governor — Arguments to establish this 151

SECTION III.— God's right to rule— By what established— What is implied in this right , 153

CONTENTS.

Chapter I. Duties To God

PAQE

SECTION I. — Internal duties: To know God — Confidence — Humility — Beverence — Godly fear — Dependence — Love — Self-consecration , 157

SECTION II.— Outward duties: Prayer— Prayer defined— What it presupposes — Natural views — Scriptural views — Different kinds of prayer — Private prayer — Family prayer — Public prayer — Posture in prayer — Arguments for and against forms of prayer — Efficacy of prayer — Objections answered — Reflections 164

SECTION III.— Sabbath— Original Sabbath— Paley's theory: objections to Paley's theory — True theory — Mosaic Sabbath — Christian Sabbath — Day changed — Proof that it is obligatory — How to be kept 172

Chapter II. Personal Ethics

SECTION L— Self-protection— The principle of self-defence- Arguments in favor of self-defence — Objection answered —

Self-injury to be avoided — Maiming — Torture — Suicide 183

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X CONTENTS.

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SECTION II.— Self-government: Control of the appetites— Sin of becoming slaves to the appetites — Control of the passions — Anger — Pride and vanity — Envy — Covetousness 187

SECTION III. — Self-culture— Physical culture: Diet— Exercise — Dress — Cleanliness — Culture of the mind : Energy — Perseverance — System — Moral culture: Pursuit of knowledge — Cherishing the sense of obligation — Obedience to conscience — Self-examination — Repentance — Putting principles into practice 195

CHAPTEE III.

HUMAN ETHICS.

SECTION I. — Justice: definition — Justice to person forbids mutilation — Destruction of life : horrors of the crime of murder — Duelling: arguments against it 206

SECTION II. — Justice as it respects character — Definition of character — Perfection the standard — What justice requires — The guilt of injuring character 210

SECTION III. — Justice as it respects reputation — Reputation defined — Circumstances in which it maybe lowered — Slander : its turpitude 214

SECTION IV. — Justice as it respects property — Definition of the right of property — How the right of property is acquired — The various ways in which it is violated — Fraud — Theft — Robbery — Rules that should govern buyer and seller 220

SECTION V.— Justice as it regards belief— What is meant by CONTENTS. xi

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justice in reference to belief — Veracity — Logical truth — Moral truth — Paley's theory : objection to Paley's theory 227

SECTION VI. — Sincerity and fidelity — How sincerity is violated — Self-aggrandizement — Self-abasement — Flattery — Hypocrisy — Mental reservation — Equivocation — Exaggeration and extenuation — False impressions — Ignorant assertions — Lying — Promises: when not binding — Contracts.... 234

SECTION VII.— Oaths : The judicial oath— Official oath— Legality of oaths — The philosophy of oaths — Perjury : its turpitude 241

SECTION VIII. — Benevolence : positive duties which we owe to man — Proofs that we should perform those duties 246

SECTION IX. — The proper objects of benevolence — The poor — Sick — Unfortunate — Afflicted — Ignorant — Depraved 249

SECTION X. — Benevolence to the injurious — The doctrine of forgiveness — What the law requires — Benevolence to those who are slandered — Manner of bestowing benevolence 253

Chapter IV

SECTION I. — Necessity of human government — Ownership of property — Title of property to be adjudicated — Bible view of civil government — Objections to human government — Objections answered 257

SECTION II.— The different forms of government— Advantages of a republican government — When preferable — The rights and obligations of government — Revolution.,. 262

Xli CONTENTS.

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SECTION III. — The different departments of government: legislative, judicial, executive — The constitution that governs all — The British and American constitutions compared — The duties of the legislator — Of the judge and jury — Of the executive 272

SECTION IV. — Crimes and punishments — Difference in crimes — Legal crimes — Moral crimes — Capital punishment — Arguments in its favor — When it may be inflicted — How to secure the administration of justice 279

SECTION V.— Duties of citizens— Obedience— Voting— Union- Intelligence and virtue — Developing resources — Defence — Correction of evils 285

SECTION I. — Marriage — To what opposed — Arguments against polygamy , 288

SECTION II. — The design of marriage — Domestic happiness — A numerous and happy posterity — Patriotism — Chastity 291

SECTION III. — The principles that should govern both parties in forming the conjugal relation 293

SECTION IV. — Reciprocal duties of the conjugal relation: Love — Sympathy — Help — Chastity — Confidence — Mutual interest — Affection for common offspring — Mutual responsibility 295

SECTION V.— Duties of husbands : Maintenance— Protection- Politeness — Tenderness — Care in sickness 298

CONTENTS. Xlll

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SECTION VI.— Duties of wives: Obedience— Fidelity— Kindness — Diligence — Providence — Contentment — Patience — Keeping at home.... 300

SECTION VII.— Divorce— May be granted by the state— On what grounds 301

SECTION VIII. — Parental duties : Maintenance — Physical education — Intellectual education — Moral education 304

SECTION IX. — Parental authority and government — Unity — Impartiality — Uniformity — Efficiency — Reasonableness 312

SECTION X.— Parental obligations: how violated— By idleness—Neglect — Flattery — Cruelty — Bad examples 315

SECTION XI.— Filial duties: Obedience— Affection— Reverence — Care in sickness — Beauty of filial piety 317

SECTION XII.— Fraternal duties : Mutual affection— Reference of disputes to parents — Submission to the will of parents — Mutual respect — Mutual forbearance 322

SECTION XIII. — Duties of teachers and pupils — Teachers should have thorough qualification — Punctuality — Energy — Discipline — Care of the morals of pupils — Pupils should exhibit obedience — Attention — Docility — Courteousness 324

Chapter VI. Duties Of Superiors And Inferiors

SECTION I —Abolition of slavery- Results— Different races- Negro race, inferiority of — Caucasian race, superiority of 329

XIV CONTENTS.

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SECTION II. — First duty: To prevent relapse into barbarism — Danger of this — Difficulty of preventing — Antagonism aroused — The duty does not include social equality — Danger of social equality — Indications of Divine Providence — Should not fight against God — Races must be kept distinct — Amalgamation... 331

SECTION III.— Second duty: Education— Results of ignorant legislation — Education the only remedy — No mixed schools 335

SECTION IV.— Third duty: The Christian religion to be inculcated — Present difficulties to be overcome — Sunday-schools 338

SECTION V.— Fourth duty: Justice— No invasion of rights- No unlawful combinations — Horrors of a war of races — Danger of collisions — Power of public opinion.. 339

SECTION VI.— Fifth duty : Forbearance— Great need of it— A lofty virtue 343

SECTION VII.— Sixth duty: Liberality— Give employment- Master and servant: 1. No unjust exactions; 2. Good wages; 3. Spiritual welfare — No injury to morals 345

SECTION VIII.— Duties of servants: Fidelity— No eye-service — Cheerfulness — Politeness — Obedience 349

CONCLUSION,

Preface

Foe, many years, the institutions of learning in the South have been without a suitable text-book on Moral Philosophy. Indeed, it may be said they have never had a suitable one. The errors of Dr. Paley, though in many respects he is a fine author, are so numerous, and of so grave a character, that they are very apt to mislead the young mind, in spite of the corrections that may be attempted by the teacher. Most of the philosophical writings of American authors are exhibitions of fanaticism, rather than of sound logic or scriptural truth, when they discuss the subject of slavery.

In view of these facts, the present writer has been in the habit of teaching his classes entirely by lectures. This course was commenced at the urgent

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XV i PREFACE.

solicitation of his classes. It has been kept up from year to year, because it was believed to be the most efficient plan of communicating instruction.

These lectures were uniformly delivered without notes, and altogether without, any manuscript preparation. The students were required to take copious notes, and, after retiring to their rooms, to write, and preserve abstracts for future reference and study. Indeed, the book was prepared by the aid of some of these abstracts, furnished by two of his old pupils, Mr. J. M. Hubbard and Mr. Thomas J. "Williams. The manner in which the work originated will account for some apparent redundancy in the style ; which, it is hoped, will be overlooked, as the author feels quite sure that his ideas are not thereby obscured, but rather presented with fulness and force.

Though, not a word of the lectures was written before delivery, they were prepared w T ith great labor and much study. Frequently hundreds of pages would be read, on one subject, before the discussion would be attempted in the lecture-room. Id

PREFACE. XVll

this way — especially as different authors were examined before the class — the author may have been brought under some obligations which are not acknowledged in the body of this work. He has, however, scrupulously endeavored to accredit each author with what was known to belong to him.

The authors that were consulted during the preparation of the lectures, were Hamilton, Cousin, Jouffroy, Butler, Brown, Wayland, Alexander, Paley, Finney, Dwight, Mahan, "Winslow, Hickok, the author of the Lowell Lectures, Upham, Thornwell, Bledsoe, Fletcher, Hopkins, and Smith. To all these the writer gratefully acknowledges his obligation.

To pretend to any great originality of thought, in a work of this kind, would probably be preposterous: the author makes no such claims. What he claims for the book is,

1st. A plan original, simple, compact, and easily comprehended.

Xviii PREFACE .

2d. He claims an exhibition of a theory of moral obligation freer from objections and more intelligible than is found in any other work which he has been able to examine. The theory is glanced at by Dr. Alexander, and partially presented in the Lowell Lectures ; but, so far as is known to the writer, its full exhibition is found in this work alone.

Should this work be adopted in our seminaries of learning, one or two suggestions may not be out of place.

1st. Let the teacher fully master each exercise required of a class, so that neither may have need of the book.

2d. Let the class be required to give the ideas in their own language.

3d. "When any proposition is sustained by argument, let the class be required to give each argument, without help from the teacher. This is a most important suggestion. And it is well, at the close of the exercise, to have some one give a sum-

PREFACE.

xix mation of all the arguments which have been presented separately by individual members.

4th. Let nothing be passed over superficially. The teacher must not only hear, but he must instruct. He must see that even the dullest member of the class has a clear understanding of the subject.

The writing of the book was undertaken at the request of beloved pupils. The writer has felt all along a painful sense of incapacity, and yet a high sense of responsibility. He would not sow the seeds of error in the young mind and heart for all the emoluments of earth. He has accompanied almost every page of the work with prayer to Almighty God for help and direction ; and he now sends it forth with an earnest prayer that it may be a blessing to his race.

ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION.

During the years that have passed since the issuing of the first edition of these Elements, the author has seen no reason to change his views in regard either to the theory or practice of morals. In view of great changes in the relations not only of individuals, but of races, the chapter on slavery has been removed, and one on the duties of the superior race to the inferior has been made to take its place. With the belief that the principles here inculcated afford the only Christian and peaceable solution of a question involving the interests of the whole country, they are earnestly set forth, and modestly, yet boldly, presented for the consideration of teachers and pupils.

The publication of this edition has been delayed by the loss of the plates. The author was too greatly reduced in means to pay for the reproduction of stereotype plates, and it has not been possible for the Publishing House to bring out the work at an earlier day. It is hoped that it will be universally adopted in the schools of the South, and 'by all just and conservative teachers throughout the country.

Louisville, Ky. } Dec. 1, 1871.

TO THE

REV. JOHN C. KEENER, D. D.,

AND TO THE

HON. J. S. LITHGOW,

THE FORMER THE HIGHEST TYPE OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTER,

AND

THE LATTER OF THE CHRISTIAN LAYMAN,

BOTH EQUALLY REMARKABLE FOR THEIR EXALTED VIRTUES, AND 10

BOTH OF WHOM THE AUTHOR IS INDEBTED FOR MUCH KINDNESS,

BY THEIR OBLIGED AND TRUE FRIEND,

R. H. RIVERS,

PART I.

THEORETICAL ETHICS r

ELEMENTS

O F

MORAL PHILOSOPHY,

PART I.

THEORETICAL ETHICS.

CHAP TEE I.

STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT.

DEFINITION OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY — DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL A* MENTAL PHILOSOPHY- — SUBJECTS EMBRACED IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF DUTY DIVISIONS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

The term moral in its common acceptation is tlie opposite of immoral, and means virtuous or just. Its scientific meaning is different. As a scientific term, the word moral is applicable to actions that are either good or evil, virtuous or vicious ; or still more generally it denotes something which has reference to man in his relations. Moral philosophy in its wider acceptation embraces the entire science of immaterial objects — mental philosophy,

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logic, etc. : in its narrower, it embraces only the science of duty.

Dr. Paley defines it as "the science which teaches our duty, and the reasons of it." Dr. "Wayland defines it as "the science of moral law."

Moral philosophy is the systematic arrangement and elucidation of the principles in the light of which we may learn our duty. The distinctions between moral and mental philosophy are as follows :

lr Mental philosophy teaches what man is; it enters into a thorough examination of his intellect, sensibilities, and will: moral philosophy teaches what man ought to be and what he ought to do. The latter begins where the former leaves off. For example, mental philosophy defines and illustrates a desire or affection, and moral philosophy shows how far such desire or affection may be gratified. When we look upon a beautiful object, pleasing emotions are excited, and if any thing valuable is connected with the object, a desire of owning it is aroused. It is the business of mental philosophy to illustrate the perception of the object, the emotion of beauty, and the desire of owning ; and here it stops: moral philosophy, then, teaches to what extent, within what limits, and according to what law, the desire may be gratified.

STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT- 27

2. Mental philosophy exhibits to us man in the abstract, without reference to his relations : moral philosophy exhibits man in his relations : 1. In relation to God ; 2. In relation to his fellow-creatures ; 3. In relation to law; 4. In relation to a future state of retribution.

3. Mental philosophy is subjective; it reveals to us the ego — the self: moral philosophy is both subjective and objective ; it reveals to us not only self, but law, duty, etc.

4. In mental philosophy the subject investigating and the object investigated are one ; it is mind investigating mind, classifying and illustrating its own powers : in moral philosophy, for the most part, the subject and object are different ; it is mind investigating, classifying, and illustrating duty. Hence we conclude that mental philosophy embraces mind alone, while moral philosophy embraces mind and its relations.

Moral philosophy is divided into two parts, theoretical and practical. In the theoretical part are embraced moral law, moral agency, moral obligation, moral conduct, and moral government. In the practical part are embraced our duties to God, to ourselves, and to our fellow-creatures.

ELEMENTS

OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

CHAPTER II.

MORAL LAW.

SECTION I.

WAYLAND'S DEFINITION: ITS DEFECTS — THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL AND PHYSICAL LAW — CORRECT DEFINITION OF MORAL LAW — GOD THE ESTABLISHER ATTRIBUTES OF MORAL LAW.

Dr. Wayland says that "The term law is a form of expression denoting either a mode of existence, or an order of sequence;" and that " moral law is an order of sequence established between the moral quality of an action and its result/ '

This definition is obscure, and to my mind defective.

1st. It makes no analysis of law — it makes no distinction between the rule and its sanctions.

2d. According to Wayland, the existence of the action must be prior to the existence of law, as without the action there could be no " order of

MORAL LAW.

sequence established between the action and its results.' ' Now the reverse of this is believed to be true. Moral law exists before moral action, and is the rule by which it should be governed. As there could be "no transgression without law/' so there could be no obedience. The law must also exist before the object whose manner of existence is determined by law, just as necessarily as it must exist before the action it is designed to control. So, then, whether we regard law as moral or physical, Dr. "Wayland's definition is to be rejected.

Law is a rule of action, or for action, accompanied by sanctions. It may be physical or moral And it may be well to present such distinctions as may enable the student to distinguish between moral and physical law.

1. Moral law always involves the idea of oughtness : physical law involves no such idea. We do not say that the sun ought to shine, or the earth to revolve, or the seasons to change; yet all these facts exist in accordance with the action of physical law. But we do say, God ought to be worshipped, our neighbor ought to be loved, justice ought to be done. These are the requirements of moral law. But no such idea of oughtness is connected with physical law, whether its action is seen in the falling apple or the revolving world, in the mite or mastodon, in man or insect.

2. Moral law always involves the idea of freedom : physical law involves the idea of necessity. No one supposes that the actions of a moral being are constrained, as are the actions which of necessity result from physical causes. The subjects of moral law are conscious that they are under a "law of liberty:" they may or may not obey its requirements; while the subjects of physical law are known to be under the law of necessity.

8. Moral law involves the idea of right and wrong : physical law involves no such idea. If a stone falls in obedience to physical law, and death is the consequence, no one attaches the idea either of right or wrong to such operation. The stone was not master of its actions ; it was under the "law of gravity;" physical law controlled it, and no one attaches a moral quality to its necessitated actions. But all say that obedience to moral law is right, and the transgression of moral law is sin.

4. Moral law involves the idea of intelligence in the subject: physical law involves no such idea in its subjects.

5. Moral law involves the ideas of merit and demerit ; but no such ideas are connected with

MORAL LAW.

physical law. No one thinks of praising or blaming either the animate or inanimate being for rendering a forced obedience to physical law ; but all connect merit with obedience to moral law, and demerit or blame to transgression of moral law.

In the light of these distinctions, we may say, with President Mahan : " Physical law is a rule of action, and moral law is a rule for action." The existence of law presupposes an establisher; hence moral philosophy recognizes the existence of an all-wise G-od, as the establisher of moral law. The moral law is the offspring of the Eternal Reason ; it is the revealing of the unnecessitated and infallible will of God. We may know then that it possesses the following attributes:

1. It is perfectly adapted to the nature of the beings for whose control it is designed. He that adapted light to the eye, food to the stomach, and air to the lungs, would not fail to adapt his moral law to the beings for whom He designed it as a rule of action.

2. It is impartial. The same conditions and relations being given, the same requirements will always be made. This law, like its great Establisher, is "no respecter of persons."

3. It is just. We have said that moral law consists of two parts — a rule and its sanctions. The sanctions are the rewards and punishments. In both these respects the law is just. It requires no more, no less, than ought to be done ; and it always offers the very reward, and threatens the very penalty, which justice requires.

4. Moral law can be obeyed. It is practicable. Make it impracticable, and it is no longer a rule for action — its character as law is destroyed. Make it impracticable, and all ideas of oughtness, of right and wrong, merit and demerit, are at once destroyed.

5. Moral law is immutable. It is the law of right, and its sacred principles are as immutable as their great Author. The circumstances being precisely the same, the rule for action must be the same. The actions being the same, the retribution is always the same. To suppose otherwise would be to reflect upon Him who is the "same yesterday, to-day, and for ever."

No analysis of moral law is complete which fails to present the correct theory of retribution, and to this we propose devoting the next section.

MORAL LAW.

Section II

RETRIBUTION — DEFINITION — UNIVERSALITY OF THE IDEA — COLERIDGE — COUSIN — THEORY OF NATURAL CONSEQUENCES : OBJECTIONS TO IT — THEORY THAT IT IS ALWAYS ADMINISTERED FOR THE SAKE OF REFORMATION: OBJECTIONS TO IT — TRUE THEORY.

By retribution, is meant that certain actions are rewarded, and certain others punished; and that the rewards and punishments are determined by the moral law.

No idea of the human reason approaches nearer to universality than that of retribution. It is exhibited in the Elysian Fields and Tartarean regions of the ancient Greeks and Romans ; is found in the " Spirit-Land" of the American Indians; and even Atheists, in peculiar circumstances, have shown that they are not strangers to the fearful idea of future punishment.

Coleridge, speaking of the effect which sudden calamities produce on guilty men, says, " The wretched criminal already interprets the calamities into judgments, executions of a sentence passed by an invisible Judge ; as if the vast pyre of the last judgment were already kindled, in an unknown distance, and some flashes of it darting forth at intervals, beyond the rest, were flying and lighting upon the face of his soul. The calamity may con- 2* sist in loss of fortune, or character, or reputation 5 but you hear no regrets from him. Remorse extinguishes all regret; and remorse is the implicit creed of the guilty."

Cousin says : " If we raise our thoughts beyond this world — if we conceive of God as we ought, not only as the author of the physical world, but as the father of the moral world, as the very substance of good and the moral law — we cannot but conceive that God ought to hold ready rewards and punishments for those who have fulfilled or broken the law."

While the idea of retribution is so nearly universal, there are various and conflicting theories concerning it.

I. The theory of natural consequences is, that all the punishment deserved for the commission of any crime, however flagrant, is simply the unhappiness experienced by the culprit at the time of the commission. Present unhappiness necessarily following present crimes, constitutes the whole of retribution.

We object to this theory on the following grounds :

1. Because, according to it, God and man are bound to treat all alike, both virtuous and vicious, For dissimilar treatment, in view of moral cha-

MOKAL LAW.

racier, would be the infliction of punishments upon the vicious, other than what follows in natural consequences. According to this doctrine, any such treatment as would add to the punishment of natural consequences would be wrong.

2. It is directly opposed to the universal convictions of the human race, so far as those convictions are known.

3. It is equally opposed to the teachings of the Sacred Scriptures. They teach us that a man should be judged, and that God will judge him, " according to the deeds done in the body."

4. According to this theory, it would be wrong to put man to any inconvenience in order to make reparation for any injury inflicted. Such inconvenience would be punishment additional to natural consequences, and would of course be improper if this theory were true.

II. The second theory of retribution is, that punishment is never inflicted except for the sake of reformation.

The objections to this theory are,

1. According to it, the incorrigible must ever escape punishment. A man has only to steep himself in crime, in order to escape punishment : the greater the criminal, the more certain the freedom from punishment.

2. It destroys the idea of justice in the punishment. Remember, that according to this, punishment is not inflicted because the person deserves it, but to effect his reformation.

3. But the greatest objection to the doctrine is, that punishment, even when justly inflicted, often leaves the criminal morally worse than it found him.

HI. The last and true theory is, that punishment is inflicted as the just desert of crime, and rewards are given as the just desert of virtue — that the punishment must be commensurate with the obligation violated, and the reward must be commensurate with the obligation fulfilled. Or, in other words, the punishment is determined by the degree of crime, and the reward is determined by the degree of virtue.

Retribution commences in this life, and is continued for ever. It is experienced in remorse of conscience, which sooner or later is proportionate to the claim violated; it is experienced in the moral indignation aroused against crime in the community; and it is to be experienced in the fearful penalties of a violated law, inflicted by God himself upon the incorrigibly guilty. The rewards come from the approbation of conscience, the approbation of community, the approbation of God.