An English grammar; comprehending the principles and rules of the language, illustrated by appropriate exercises: on the basis of Murray

Front matter

I

Ifi wm m

RBI m m m

Preface

The English Grammar of Lindley Murray* has ever been regarded as a work of distinguished merit. For more than forty years has it had a reputation and circulation, unequaled in the history of grammars. These it has justly enjoyed. For, a work compiled from the grammars and grammatical studies of Karris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestly, Beattie, Sheriden, Walker, Coote, Blair, Campbell and Webster f — all men of sound erudition, and intimately versed in the principles and structure of the English language — by a person so well prepared for the undertaking as Mr. Murray, so well read, and so competent for selection, arrangement, or even composition ; such a work, it is affirmed, could not well fail to embrace the true principles of the language, and to possess far more than ordinary excellence.

Mr. Murray regarded himself, as may be seen by his Prefaces, only as a Compiler. The language of his work is, in a great measure, the language of Lowth and the other grammarians quoted above, for which no more than general credit is given in the fore part of the volume. As Murray made no scruples in copying from the works of others ; so more modern compilers have made no scruples in copying from his work. The language of his grammar seems, indeed, to have been regarded, and not without reason, as common property, f and all have used it, altered or amended it, as if it were their own. .Nor is there, since the true authors are unknown, any injustice or impolicy in this course. On the contrary, there may be an advantage ; for if the language be clear, precise and correct, it is better that it continue still to be used, than that it be exchanged for that less definite and less perfect.

From the foregoing remarks may be gathered the reasons for constructing the following volume on the basis of Murray's Grammar, as it purports to be on the title page. Though the chief part of it has been re-written, and the whole prepared with much care and labor, the subscriber lays no claim to its being considered an original work ; but would rather regard it, in an enlarged sense, as but a revision of Murray's full work in two volumes, and himself as having made those changes only which necessity and experience dictated, and which Mr Murray himself would sanction, were he alive to witness them. Every teacher of any experience, though conscious of the excellencies of Murray's over every other English grammar, has neverthless, seen in it and admitted great faults, and though he has done it reluctantly, these have compelled him, in some instances, to lay it aside, and adopt others of less merit, though more correct in some of their essential parts.

The reason for entering upon the preparation of this work, is found in the fact of there being no grammar extant, adapted to the use of teachers and students — none without great and radical errors, and in some instances, an entire inadaptedness to the wants of schools. This fact is proved not only by an examination of the grammars extant themselves, though it is cheerfully confessed that some of them have much merit ; but also from the almost universal complaint of teachers on the subject : and to these just complaints, the subscriber can add his own

* Mr. Murray was a native of this country. He was born in New Jersey, where he spent the early part of his life, t These are the men from whose works Mi" Murray says his own was compiled.

IV PREFACE.

testimony, based on ten year's experience as a teacher, that he has been able, during that time, to find no grammar adapted to his wants, or fitted to make its study pleasant and successful to the student. His own wants were perhaps the more immediate cause ot the undertaking.

The objects had in view in the compilation of this volume, were to embrace the true principles of the English language in a form, not so concise as to fail of imparting a full and explicit understanding of them, nor so extended as to weary and confuse— to express them in language clear, precise and definite, without any effort to simplicity ,• for this has been the bane of many school books and a sufficient objection against them— to illustrate and enforce them by appropriate remarks and well chosen exercises— to give the work a logical and clear arrangement j and, finally, to make the whole a complete and correct system of English Grammar, perfectly adapted to the use of schools and academies. How far these objects have been accomplished, it is for the public to judge. Other less general objects have been aimed at ; and of these, one of the chief was to make its orthography and etymology harmonize with those of the standard dictionary of our language : to wit, Webster's. In this attempt the subscriber feel3 concious he has suceeded so far as success is desirable, and it will be regarded by all, he believes, as a most valuable improvement.

A fuller view of the work, compared with the one on which it is based, will be gained from the following brief particulars :

1. The whole work is divided into distinct sections, each having in general its appropriate head, both for a more logical arrangement, and for convenience of reference.

2. Those parts of grammar designed for reference, or for the study of pupils somewhat advanced in the science, as the rules of orthography, derivation, &c, are separated from the body of the work and placed in an Appendix by themselves.

3. The Article is not allowed as a part of speech, bat the words of this class are placed among the adjectives, from which they should never have been separated. — See reasons in full for this change, on pp. 18, 31 and 32.

4. A section is added on the limitation of nouns, and the neuter gender i3 discarded as having no warrant for the distinction to which it alludes in the English language. — See note on page 20th, and the word gender in the Glossary.

5. The verbs are more naturally and logically classified ; the neuter is called the inactive ; some incongruous terms in the tenses are changed for others more clear and expressive ; the conjugations are more distinctly laid down, and forms given for the conjugation of verbs interrogatively, negatively, and interrogatively and negatively combined.

(3. A new chapter (chap. 1.) is added on Syntax, on a new and greatly improved plan, which in connection with Chapter II, embracing all of Murray's, (including the exercises in false Syntax, contained in his second octavo volume,) thoroughly revised, forms, it is believed, a more complete and better system of Syntax than has ever before been offered to the public.

7. Murray's article on Versification, always deemed defective and obscure, has been exchanged for another, at once complete and intelligible, drawn up by that most accurate and critical scholar in this department of grammatical knowledge, the late Judge Trumbull, of Connecticut.

8. The Appendix contains three sections on the Prefixes and Suffixes of the English language, prepared with great care from the best sources. It is believed they will be found greatly to enhance the value of the work.

9. Lastly, a Glossary of grammatical technical terms is added at the end of the volume. This is regarded as a valuable appendage ; inasmuch as a correct and full understanding of the technical terms of any science is of the highest importance towards attaining a knowledge of that science. It should be frequently and carefully consulted.

By means of two kinds of type a large amount of matter has been embraced in this volume, without inordinately swelling its size. No part of Grammar is omitted, and yet every part is full.

JSo questions have been introduced into the work for the examination of pupils — none were deemed requisite. Written questions for text books are believed to be injurious on several accounts. First, they tend to promote a partial and consequently superficial examination of the text ; inasmuch as the student in searching to find the answers to such questions, fails to obtain a correct, thorough and connected view of the whole subject. Secondly, they tend to foster habits of indolence on the part of teachers, who having questions ready made for their use, neglect to study the text themselves, and are thus often incapable of being, in any respect, beneficial to the pupil. Thirdly, they tend to make lessons monotonous

PREFACE. V

and tiresome, by depriving them of novelty and leaving them devoid of interest; and fourthly, they have the effect to narrow down, or bigot the mind, by confining it to set and limited trains of thought, whereas its free expansion should be encouraged by eliciting thought in various channels running from the subject, by extempore questions and verbal remarks. Besides all this, every intelligent teacher feels that he is quite as well able to adapt questions to his pupils of various ages, and every variety of attainment and understanding, as the author or compiler of a book, sitting in his study ; and he can but feel, and often does, that an insult is offered to his intelligence and judgement, when a book is put into his hands for use, with a large portion of every page occupied by questions, often most illy adapted to any class for instruction.

Neither has any key to the exercises in false saytax been appended to the work. For if the pupil studies under a teacher, as he most likely will do, he will find in Jiim, if intelligent, his best key -; or if he has sufficient maturity of mind to pursue grammar without the teacher's aid, he will be able by proper diligence and exertion, to understand the corrections which are to be made in the sentences of false ■construction, from the rules and observations immediately preceding them. A key for the use of teachers is not far from being a burlesk on their intellectual capacities and common sense, and is well calculated to dwarf the mind, by removing from it the occasion and necessity for mental exertion.

In preparing this volume, a variety of grammars have been consulted. From -only one or two, however, has any thing valuable been drawn. A few extracts have been made from the grammar of Dr. N. Webster, for which credit is given in its proper place. The Rules for Spelling, embraced in the Appendix, are also from his pen. The analysis of sentences contained in chapter first on Syntax, is chiefly from the Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard. In this connection the undersigned embraces with pleasure the opportunity to express his acknowledgments to the Rev. W. D. Wilson, from whom he has derived some valuable suggestions, in various parts of the volume.

As the subscriber is only desirous that his work shall answer the purpose of its -design, and as he is not so vain as to suppose it free from errors, or even many defects ; those teachers and others who may do him the honor to examine it, will confer a great obligation by favoring him with their critical remarks, or any suggestions they may think proper to communicate ; and they will still more oblige, by doing this in sufficient season, to allow him to avail himself of them for a second edition, should it be called for.

That this volume may be the instrument of advancing and cheering the progress of the student in his efforts for the attainment of a science, at once deeply intellectual, extensively practical, and when rightly pursued, highly interesting, is the earnest desire of the compiler; and he will only add the request in justice to himself, that those into whose hands it may fall, will suspend their prejudices and judgment till they have carefully examined its pages.

J. SWETT, Jr.

New England Seminary , )

Windsor, Vt n Sept. 17, 1842. }

Contents

Page.

Grammar, definition and division of the subject 7 ORTHOGRAPHY.

Letters, Chapter I. 9 Forms of the letters, 10 Classes of letters, 11 Classes of Consonants. 11 Diphthongs and Triphthongs, 11 Articulate sounds, 11 Syllables, Chap. II. 13 Words, Chap. III. 13 Rules for Spelling, 14

Chap. II. 96

Punctuation, Chap. III. 129

Comma, 130

Semicolon, 135

Colon, 135

Period, 136

Dash, 137

Interrogation Point, 137

Exclamation Point, 137

Other marks, 138

Capital Letters, 140

PROSODY.

Pronunciation, Chap. I. 143

Accent, 143

Quantity, 144

Emphasis, 145

Tones, 145

Pauses, 146

Versification, Chap. II. 148

Poetical Feet, " 148

Poetical Pauses, 151

Expression, 154

Reading Verse, 157

Appendix

Sounds of the Letters, 159

Rules for Spelling, 166

Prefixes, 171

Suffixes, 174

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

<§>1. Grammar* is the science of Language.

English Grammar teaches how to speak and write the English Language correctly.

Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, Universal and Particular. Universal Grammar treats of the principles which are common to all languages. Particular Grammar treats of the principles which pertain to a particular language, or of the application of general principles to a particular language, modifying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the established practice of the best writers and speakers by whom it is used.

Language, in the proper sense of the word, is that system of signs, whether of written words or articulate sounds, by which we express our ideas and their various relations.

The power of speech is one of the distinguishing characters of our nature 5 none of the inferior animals being in any degree possessed of it : for we must not call by the name of speech that imitation of human articulate voice, of which parrots and some other birds are capable.

That some inferior animals should be able to mimic human articulation, will not seem wonderful, when we recollect that even by machines the sounds of certain words have been expressed. But that the parrot should annex thought to the word he utters, is scarcely more probable than that the machine should do so. Rogue and knave are in every parrot's mouth ; but the ideas they stand for are incomprehensible by any other beings than those endowed with reason and a moral sense.

* For the derivation, and literal and technical meaning of this and all other grammatical terms in this work, the pupil is referred to the Glossary at the end of the volume.

A

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Jt is probable that there is among irrational animals something, which, by figure, we may call language, as the instinctive economy of bees is figuratively called government. But animal voices have no analogy with human speech. For, first, men speak by art and imitation ; whereas the voices in question are wholly instinctive. Secondly, the voices of brute animals are not resolvable into distinct elementary sounds, like those of men; nor are they susceptible of that variety which would be necessary for the communication of a very few sentiments; and furthermore, the young of beasts, previous to instruction, comprehend their meaning, as well as the old ones. Thirdly, these voices seem intended by nature to express, not distinct ideas, or trains of thought, but certain feelings only 5 in which, as in all other respects, they are analogous, not to our speaking, but to our weeping, laughing, groaning, screaming, and the like.

The orang-outang has all the organs of voice, and a brain, like those of man, and yet the animal cannot articulate : it wants a rational soul.

The number of living languages and dialects is about two thousand.

Grammar is divided into four parts, namely : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

Orthography treats of the form and sound of letters, the combination of the letters into syllables, and syllables into words.

Etymology treats of the different classes of words, of their various modifications, and their derivations.

Syntax treats of the union and right order of words in the formation of a sentence, and their dependence upon one another.

Prosody treats of the just pronunciation of words, the poetical construction of sentences, and punctuation.

Part I. Orthography

$2. Orthography treats of the form and sound of letters, the combination of the letters into syllables, and of syllables into words.

Chapter I. Of Letters

§3. A letter is a character used in writing or printing, to represent an articulate sound. It is the first principle or least part of a word.

Letters, we are told, were first introduced into Greece, 1453 years before the Christian era, by Cadmus, a Phoenician. How long they had been used in Phoenicia previous to that time, is not known. The alphabet of Cadmus consisted of 16 letters : the Greeks afterwards added 8 others.

The letters in the English language, called the English Alphabet 9 are twenty-six in number.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

The following is a list of the R

Roman.

Iul ic.

OldE;

Cap.

Small.

Cap.

Small.

Cap.

A a

A a m

B b

B b

JS c c

C c

D d

D d m

E e

E e m

F f

F f

G g

G g

<2ff

H h

H h

P?

I i

I i it

J

J

J

J

K k

K k

It

L

L

I

M m

M m m

N n

N n

TX

O

O

P

P

P

P

P a q

Q q

R r

R r m s s s s

«s

T t

T t

K

U u

U u m

V

V

V

V

-V

X

X

X

X

X

Y y

Y y sr

Small.

a

a

t tr t t

i

t

J

ft

I

m

n

o a

v

n

t

u

u

iu

V

Name.

ai

bee

see

dee

ee

ef jee aitch i or eye

3 a V kay

el

em

en

o

pee

cue

ar

ess

tee

u or you

vee

double u

elcs

wy

zee

The Hebrew alphabet contains but twenty-two letters ; the Greek and Latin have each twenty-four, and the French has twenty-five.

Forms of the Letters.

§4. The letters have each two forms, by which they are distinguished ; viz. that of capitals and that of small letters.

Capitals are used for the sake of distinction or eminence; as for the titles of books, headings of chapters, and beginning of proper names. Small letters constitute the body of every work.

The Roman characters are generally employed ; sometimes the Italic, and occasionally the Old English. Very emphatic words are usually written in Italic characters.

LETTERS THEIR DIFFERENT CLASSES. 11

Classes of Letters.

§5. Letters are divided into Voivels and Consonants.

A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly uttered by itself: as a, e t o; which are formed without the help of any other sound.

A Consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be perfectly utterea without the help of a vowel : as 6, d,f, I; which require vowels to express them fully.

The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y.

IF and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; but in every other situation they are vowels.

Classes of Consonants.

§6. Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.

The mutes cannot be sounded at ally without the aid of a vowel. They are 6, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard.

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are/, 7, m t n, r f v, s, z, z, and c and g soft.

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n t r, are also distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were, into their sounds.

Of Diphthongs and Triphthongs.

§7. A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a simple impulse of the voice ; as ea in beat, ou in sound.

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner; as, eau in beau, tew in view.

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce.

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in eagle, oa in boat.

A proper triphthong is that in which all the vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy.

An improper triphthong is that in which but one or two of the vowels are sounded; as, eau in beauty, iou in anxious.

Of Articulate Sounds, — Their Nature and Formation.

§8. An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech.

A 2

12 ORTHOGRAPHY.

led by I may ire of

'A concise account of the origin and formation of the sounds emitted the human voice, may perhaps not improperly be here introduced. It m^ gratify the ingenious student, and serve to explain more fully the nature of articulation.

Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agitated or modified in its passage through the windpipe and larynx, as to become distinctly audible. The windpipe is that tube, which on touching the forepart of our throat externally, we feel hard and uneven. It conveys air into the lungs for the purpose of breathing and speech. The top or upper part of the windpipe is called the larynx, consisting of four or five cartilages, that may be expanded or brought together, by the action of certain muscles which operate all at the same time. In the middle of the larynx there is a small opening, called the glottis, through which the breath and voice are conveyed. This opening is not wider than one tenth of an inch ; and, therefore, the breath transmitted through it from the lungs, must pass with considerable velocity. The voice thus formed, is strengthed and softened by a reverberation from the palate and other hollow places in the inside of the mouth and nostrils; and as these are better or worse shaped for this reverberation, the voice is said to be more or less agreeable .

Speech is made up of articulate voices; and what we call articulation, is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, or larynx, but by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils. Articulation begins not, till the breath, or voice, has passed through the larynx.

The simplest articulate voices are those which proceed from an open mouth, and are by grammarians called vowel sounds. In transmitting these, the aperture of the mouth may be pretty large, or somewhat smaller, or very small ; which is one cause of the variety of vowels ; a particular sound being produced by each particular aperture. Moreover, in passing through an open mouth, the voice may be gently acted upon, by the lips, or by the tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat 5 whence another source of variety in vowel sounds.

When the voice, in its passage through the mouth, is totally intercepted or strongly compressed, there is formed a certain modification of articulate sound, which, as expressed by a character in writing, is called a consonant. Silence is the effect of a total interception ; and indistinct sound, of a strong compression: and therefore a consonant is not of itself a distinct articulate voice ; and its influence in varying the tones of language is not clearly perceived unless it be accompanied by an opening of the mouth, that is by a vowel.

By making the experiment with attention, the student will perceive that each of the mutes is formed by the voice being intercepted, by the lips, by the tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat; and that the semi-vowels are formed by the same organs strongly compressing the voice in its passage, but not totally intercepting it.

The elements of language, according to the different seats where they are formed, or the several organs of speech chiefly concerned in their pronunciation, are divided into several classes, and denominated as follows : those are called labials, which are formed by the lips ; those dentals, that are formed with the teeth ; palatals, that are formed with the palate; iiasals, that are formed by the nose ; gutturals, that are formed in the throat ; and Unguals, that are formed with the tongue.

SYLLABLES AND WORDS — SPELLING. 13

Chapter II. Of Syllables

§9. A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word : as, a, an, ant.

A syllable may contain any number of letters from one to seven or eight : one of which, at least, must be a vowel.

§10. Spelling is the art of forming words by their proper letters, and rightly dividing them into syllables.

Spelling is to be learned rather by means of the spelling-book and by observation in reading, than by the study of specified rules. The orthography of our language is so irregular, that few general rules can be given, and even some of those are encumbered with many exceptions. A large number of words are differently spelled by the best scholars, and many others are written without any regard to their sounds, or to the orthography of similar words. But for a person to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are uniformly spelled, and often used, is justl}' considered reproachful.

In dividing words into syllables, we are, for the most part, to be governed by the ear. The following general rules may, however, be of service.

1. The consonants should generally be joined to the vowels, which they modify ; as, ob-ju-ra-to-ry.

2. Compounded words must be resolved into the simple words of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glowworm, over-power, never-the-less.

3. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are generally separated ; as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, teach-er, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed ; good-ness, freedom, false-hood.

4. At the end of a line, a word may be divided if necessary ; but a syllable never.

Chapter III. Of Words And Rules For Spelling

§11. Words are articulate sounds, or combinations of letters, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas. A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a word

14 ORTHOGRAPHY.

of two syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.

There are as many syllables in a word as there are distinct sounds.

All words are either primitive or derivative.

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler word in the language : as, man, good, content.

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another word in English of greater simplicity : as, manful, goodness, contentment, Yorkshire.

Words, again, are either simple or compound.

A simple word is one that is not compounded; as, boy, chair.

A compound word is one that is composed of two or more other words ; as, ale-house, brick-bat.

Rules for Spelling,

§1£* A few concise rules for the spelling of words will here be given, which the learner can consult at his pleasure. It should not be forgotten, however, that spelling-books and dictionaries, and attentive observation in reading, afford the only proper facilities, and are the surest guides to a correct orthography of the English language.

Rule I. Monosyllables ending with/, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant} as, staff, mill, pass, &c. The only exceptions are, of if, is, has, was, yes. his, this, us, and thus.

Rule II. Monosyllables ending with any consonant buifl, or s, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant 5 excepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz.

Rule III. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a vowel. as, wit, witty; thin, thinnish ; abet, abettor; begin, beginner.

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the consonant remains single 5 as, toil, toiling, offer, offering; maid, maiden, &c.

Rule IV. Words ending with any double letter but I, and taking ness, less, ly,orful, after them, preserve the letter double 5 as, harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distress/id, &c. But those words which end with double I, and take ness, less, ly s or ful, after them, generally omit one I; as, fulness, skilless, skilful, &c.

Rule V. Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut it off 5 as. paleness, guileless, clns,ely , peaceful ; except in a few . words 3 as ? duly, truly, awful.

PARTS OF SPEECH. 15

Rule VI. Ment, added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves the e from elision j as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations from the rule.

Like other terminations, ment changes y into i t when preceded by a consonant} as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry , merriment .

Rule VII. Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with silent e, almost always cut it off} as, blame, blamable .-cure, curable ; sense, sensible, &c. : but if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c.

Rule VIII, When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, the e is almost universally omitted 3 as, place, placing; lodge, lodging-, slave, slavish; prude, prudish.

Part II. Etymology

§13. The second part of grammar is etymology, which treats of the different classes of words, their various modifications, and their derivations.*