A grammar of the English language

II Principal Of Castleton Seminary, Vermont

NEW YORK:

DAYTON AND NEWMAN.

boston: tappan and dennet. — andover : allen, morrill and ward well.

1842, i» V

W4m

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by

EDWARD J. HALLOCK, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.

Introduction

The author presents to the public the following treatise as exhibiting in his view the correct principles of English grammar, and the proper method of teaching them. There are several considerations which have induced him to attempt a work necessarily attended with so many difficulties, and requiring so much labor and careful investigation, to render it in any degree useful to the cause of education. Having devoted several years to the business of teaching, he has had a favorable opportunity to examine with care most of the grammars now in use, and to know their excellencies and defects so far as he is able to judge correctly with respect to them. The views he has entertained upon the subject of grammar, are in some respects essentially different from those exhibited in any treatise with which the author is acquainted. In teaching this science, he has, therefore, been obliged to adopt text-books which, in his opinion, contained many erroneous principles, tending in many cases to mislead and perplex the young student, instead of making his path clear and easy. But the student is not the only sufferer. By such text-books the teacher is subjected to a serious inconvenience. He is compelled to teach what he believes to be false, or disprove what is inculcated in the text book, and communicate his own views either in verbal or written lectures.

The author has preferred the latter course ; and the approbation which his views and mode of teaching have met, both on the part of his pupils and the visitors of the Seminary with which he is connected ; and the repeated requests that

IV INTRODUCTION.

he should make them public, were no slight considerations in leading him to attempt a task so laborious and difficult. In the execution of this work, the author has neither felt nor displayed a spirit of controversy or denunciation. He has aimed to explain the principles of grammar clearly and concisely, without stopping to controvert the opinions of others any farther than a clear exhibition of his own views required. Indeed he does not wish to give currency to his own work by unjust strictures upon those of others. He expects it will stand by its own merits if at all, and not by any adventitious circumstances that he can throw around it.

A partial exhibition of the mode in which this treatise is executed, will tend to illustrate more clearly the reasons which have led to its publication.

The subject-matter of this work is made to accord, as far as its utility will allow, with that which is adopted in treatises upon the same subject now in use. The author has not labored to make it singular, either in respect to manner or matter, merely for the sake of singularity.

But, although the general features of the plan are the same as those of other grammars, yet in the detail it is quite different. The general principles of the work are numbered by sections ; and under each section, remarks are introduced, if necessary, which also are numbered in the order in which they follow their respective sections. This is done for the purpose of referring the student to the principles which apply to each given exercise. At the close of the discussion of each part of speech, examples are introduced to be parsed etymologically. In order to render the exercises simple and adapt them to the capacity of the young student, the rules of syntax are not introduced into the etymological exercises that precede them. In syntax, etymological and syntactical exercises are united. Under each rule there are exercises of false syntax, which the student should be required to correct orally according to the rule and remarks under which they are writ-

INTRODUCTION. V

ten. Following the syntax, a variety of extracts of prose and poetry are introduced for the student to parse and analyze ; and for the purpose of assisting him, references are written at the bottom of each page, directing him to those principles of grammar which are applicable to the exercises written above them. These exercises are so extensive and furnish such a variety of examples, that all the principles of grammar will be repeatedly called into requisition ; and thus the student will be furnished with ample means for acquiring an extensive and thorough knowledge of grammar, without being subjected to the inconvenience of using a distinct book for the purpose of analysis and parsing.

The writer has, in this treatise, introduced some alterations in the classification of the parts of speech. To those words which are usually denominated demonstrative, distributive and indefinite adjective pronouns, the term pronoun is not applied when they belong to nouns expressed or understood. That is usually called a demonstrative adjective pronoun, when it limits the meaning of a noun. But why call it a pronoun 1 It surely does not supply the place of a noun. It is also sometimes used as a conjunction ; and why can we not, with the same propriety, apply the term pronoun when used as such, and call it a pronominal conjunction ? When the words above named represent nouns, the term pronoun should be applied, but in no other case. Such a course should be pursued in order to classify them consistently with the definition given to the pronoun.

The potential mode is not adopted in this treatise, as the author can see no reason for its use. Those verbs that are usually parsed as being in this mode can, with perfect propriety, come under the indicative. The indicative mode affirms or denies something or asks a question. Now what verb, that is usually parsed as being in the potential mode, may not be arranged under the indicative 1 Do not the propositions, I may walk, I might walk, I could walk, affirm that I have

1*

VI INTRODUCTION.

power or ability to walk 1 The author does not see why they are not as really affirmations as i" walk, I walked, etc. True there is a difference in what is affirmed by the two kinds of propositions ; a possible action being affirmed by the former, and a real action, by the latter. But the difference in what is affirmed would be a dangerous principle to adopt in the formation of modes. If such a principle be admitted, there would be as many modes as there are verbs; for very few verbs mean precisely the same thing. The course here adopted relieves the grammar from some inconsistencies which can easily be made obvious. According to most grammars, the verb, might love, is parsed as being in the potential mode and imperfect tense. But this proposition does not denote a past action or state, which is uniformly the import of the imperfect tense. This verb usually denotes a present possible action or state. Here then is a palpable inconsistency ; a verb which is in the present tense denoting a present possible action, is arranged under the imperfect, and parsed as a verb that denotes an action indefinitely past and finished. It would be as absurd to say that two and two make five, as that the proposition, / might love, denotes a past action.

The conjunctions are divided into six classes, instead of two which is the usual division, and which, in the opinion of the writer, is in many cases incorrect. As an example, take the conjunction that, which is sometimes parsed as a copulative conjunction and which is defined as connecting words or sentences by expressing addition, supposition or cause. " I have ever toiled hard that I might gain a subsistence." Now what does that denote in this example ? Does it denote addition, supposition or cause ? The author cannot see that it expresses either. If it denotes neither of them, the common definitions of copulative conjunctions are defective. That in the above example denotes the object or result of the preceding proposition, and therefore it should be denominated a

INTRODUCTION. Vll

final conjunction. The reader is referred to the article upon conjunctions for further information upon the subject now considered.

A system of analysis is introduced into this work, which is not contained in any English grammar, with which the author is acquainted, except one, and but partially in that. According to this analysis, propositions and compound sentences are analyzed grammatically and logically. This system of analysis, the author regards as one of the most valuable parts of the grammar. Indeed, it is his firm conviction, that it will assist the student more in ascertaining the relation and force of the words in a proposition, than the common method of parsing. The unusual advantages which this system will afford, were there no others contained in this work, are in his view amply sufficient to warrant its publication.

To the syntax special attention has been given. It has been a prominent object in the composition of the syntax, as well as in other parts of this grammar, to introduce precision in the definition of rules and remarks. Those rules and remarks which are clearly defined in other grammars, are in many cases introduced without any modification, while others are newly defined and corrected. The whole the author has labored to make concise and perspicuous.

The materials of this grammar have been derived from various sources. In the composition of this work, the author had before him most of the English grammars that have acquired any valuable reputation. He has consulted them carefully and adopted, both as to manner and matter, the principles contained in them, so far as they would contribute to the utility of this treatise. The works from which the most assistance has been derived, are the grammars of Murray, Webster, and Andrews and Stoddard. There are others from which some assistance has been derived, but which it is not necessary to specify particularly. Many of the definitions contained in the very excellent Latin grammar of Andrews and Stoddard,

Vlll INTRODUCTION.

are introduced into this treatise without alteration. This has been done not only because an attempt to improve them promised no benefit, but for the convenience of those who may pursue a course of classical study. From this work and that of De Sacy, many principles of the analysis have been collected, and arranged and adapted to the genius of the English language.

But, while the author thus cheerfully acknowledges his obligations to others, he does not admit that he is a mere copyist. Many principles are displayed in this treatise, which he has seen in no other grammar ; and the manner and matter derived from other sources, have been so modified as to give the work a consistency with itself and the impress of the author's own mind.

It is not the province of the grammarian to give law to language, but to develope and teach the principles that accord with the best usage. His instructions should always accord with reputable and general use, or the practice of the best speakers and writers. Of this principle the author is well aware, and has endeavored to be governed by it in the execution of this work.

Those passages which are taken without alteration, are generally marked with quotations or by subscribing the name of the author of the work from which they are taken.

In commending this work to the patronage of the public, the author does not pretend to be indifferent as to its usefulness and success. It would be presumption to claim for it absolute perfection, but he hopes it will bear the examination of an impartial and dispassionate mind. Should it stand the test of such an examination, should it receive the approbation of an enlightened public and advance^the cause of education, he will be amply compensated for his labor, and his highest expectations with regard to it will be fully realised.

DIRECTIONS

TO TEACHERS AND PUPILS.

As the arrangement of this grammar is in some respects peculiar, it may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner it should be studied.

There are two courses of exercises adopted, one called the first and the other the second course. The scholar in commencing the study of grammar, should direct his attention to the sections only of the first course of the exercises. He should begin to parse etymologically, as soon as he has learned the definitions of the first part of speech. In the first course of exercises, he will see the order of parsing illustrated, and a reference at the close of each question is made to the section which will enable the scholar to answer it intelligently. After he has gone through with the first course of etymological and syntactical parsing, he may then take the second course, and observe the references, as in the first course. It is best that the pupil should thoroughly commit the principles referred to in every case, so that he may have them at command when he enters upon exercises where there are no references. After having mastered the false syntax, he may perhaps profitably direct his attention to the analysis in connection with the exercises that succeed the rules of syntax. Pupils should be required, in every case, to apply the principles of grammar while parsing, till they have made them perfectly familiar. It is only by pursuing such a course, that they will become interested in this science, obtain a knowledge of the genius and power of their own language, and acquire that discipline of mind which a correct mode of studying it, is pre-eminently fitted to afford.

Contents

Page.

Page.

Definition and Division of the

Definite Pronouns subject

Distributive Pronouns

PART 1.— ORTHOGRAPHY. Declension of Pronouns

Division of Letters

Compound Personal Pronouns 68

Remarks on the Sounds of

Declension of Compound

Letters

Pronouns

Diphthongs and Triphthongs

Declension of Relative and

Forms of Letters

Interrogative Pronouns

Rules for the Use of Capital

Letters

Syllables and Words

Verbs ....

Division of Words into Syl-

Modifications of Verbs .

lables ....

Modes ....

Rules for the Division of

Tenses ....

Words into Syllables

Numbers

Questions on the General Di-

Persons vision of Grammar

Conjugation of Verbs

Spelling

Declension of Verbs

Rules for Spelling

Auxiliaries

PART IL— ETYMOLOGY.

Articles

Conjugation of Verbs

Nouns ....

Passive Verb

Modifications of Nouns „

Number ....

Questions .

Gender ....

Irregular Verbs

Cases ....

List of Irregular Verbs conju-

Declension of Nouns gated ....

lExercises in Parsing

Defective Verbs

Impersonal Verbs .

Adjectives

Modification of Adjectives

Particles

Adverbs

Pronouns,

Connective Adverbs

Personal Pronouns

Modification of Adverbs

Relative Pronouns

Compound Relatives

Questions . .

Interrogative Pronouns .

Prepositions .

Indefinite Pronouns

J List of Prepositions

Xll

CONTENTS.

Exercises in Parsing Questions Conjunctions Exercises in Parsing Questions Interjections .

Exercises in Parsing Questions .

Derivation

Derivation of Articles Derivation of Nouns Derivation of Adjectives Derivation of Pronouns Derivation of Relative

Pronouns

Derivation of Verbs

Derivation of Adverbs

Derivation of Prepositions

Derivation of Conjunctions PART III. -SYNTAX.

Principles of Analysis

Subject ....

Subject modified

Predicate

Predicate modified .

Grammatical and Logical Connection

Sentences

Exercises in Analysing .

Rules of Syntax

Questions on the Nominative Case of Nouns

Questions on the Adjectives

Questions on the Pronouns and Nouns .

Questions on the Nominative Case ....

Page.

130 131 131 132 133

135 136 137 139 139

140 141 142 143 144

167 174

Page.

Questions on the Possessive

Case . . . . 178 Questions on the Objective

Case . . . ' . 184 Questions on the Infinitive

Mode .... 186 Questions on the Adverbs 191 Questions on the Interjections 192 Questions on the Subjunctive 193 Examples in Prose . 193

Exercises in Syntax . 198

PART IV.— PROSODY.

Punctuation . . . 224 Comma .... 225 Semicolon . . . 232 Colon .... 234 Period .... 235 Dash .... 236 Note of Interrogation . 237 Note of Exclamation . 238 Parenthesis . . . 239 Other Characters . . 239 Versification . . . 242 Quantity ... 242

Rhyme .... 242 Poetical Feet . . . 242 Metre . . 243

Verse .... 243 Scanning . . . 243

Trochaical Verse . . 243 Iambic Verse . . . 245 Dactylic Verse . . 246 Anapaestic Verse . . 246 Pronunciation . . 246

Figures '. . . . 247 Figures of Etymology . 247 Figures of Syntax , . 248 Figures of Rhetoric . 248

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

<§> 1. English Grammar teaches the principles of the English language, and the proper manner of writing and speaking it.

<§> 2. It is divided into four parts ; Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

Remark 1. The principles of grammar are usually divided into two classes, the particular and universal. The particular principles are such as are appropriate to a particular language, and the universal, such as are common to all languages.

Rem. 2. The standard of grammatical accuracy is the present reputable and general use, or the established practice of the best speakers and writers.

Rem. 3. Principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the language, sanctioned by good use.

Rem. 4. A definition in grammar, consists in describing a principle in a definite form.

Rem. 5. " A rule in grammar describes the peculiar construction, or circumstantial relation of words which custom has established for our observance."

PART I.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

<§> 3. Orthography teaches the nature and power of letters and the proper mode of forming them into syllables and words.

Remark. Articulate sounds are the elements of language, which are represented by letters or characters. The English Alphabet has twenty-six letters that represent sounds : A a, B 6, Cc,Dd,Ee, Ff, G g, Hh, I i, Jj, Kk, L Z, Mm, JYn, O o, Pp y Qq,Rr,Ss,Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Z z.

14 § 4. Orthography — division and sounds of letters.

DIVISION OF LETTERS. § 4. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants.

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded alone, The sound is simple, and it is begun and continued at pleasure with the same position of the organs.

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and w and y in all situations except when they begin a word or syllable.

When placed at the beginning of words they are consonants^

A consonant is a letter which cannot be sounded without the help of a vowel.

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. Mutes cannot be sounded at all alone. They are b, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard.

The semi-vowels can be partially sounded alone. Such are f, L m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft.

The letters I, m, n and r are called liquids, because they readily unite with other consonants.

The letters b,f m, p and v, are called labials, because they are articulated by the lips.

The letters c, g, q and j, are called palatals, because they are articulated by the tongue.

The letters m and n are called nasals, because they are articulated through the nose.

The letters d, t, z, c and s are called aspirates, because they are articulated mostly by the breath.

The letters h,f, v, and hard g and c are called gutturals, because they are articulated mostly by the throat.

The letter/ represents the sounds of d and g soft.

The letter x represents the sounds of k and s ; except when it begins a word ; as, Xerxes,

The letter z represents the sounds of d and s.

REMARKS ON THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS*

A

A has four sounds.

1. The long English sound ; as in fane, cane, fate.

2. The short Italian sound of a ; as in cat, hat

3. The long Italian sound of a; as in harm, farm.

4. The broad German sound of a ; as in hall, wall.

B

B has the same sound in all its positions. It is sometimes silent ; as in debt, subtle.

In some cases, it is not entirely silent, but protracts the syllable; as climb , tomb.

C

C has two sounds. Before a, o, u, I, r and £, it has a hard sound like k ; as in coefe, can, cottage, etc. and it has the same sound when it ends a syllable ; as in victim, flaccid. Before e,i, and ?/, it is always soft ; as in civil, decency. C is silent in czar, vituals, etc. C in a few words takes a flat sound like that of z ; as i n sacrifxe, discern. C before ea, ia, it, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, sounds like sh ; as in ocean, special, species, gracious, cetaceous. Ch is generally sounded like tch ; as in change, chance, China, church, etc.

In Greek words ; as in chyle, chorus, ch is sounded like k ; also in some proper names from foreign languages, ch is sounded like k; as in Baruch, Enoch, etc.

In words of French origin, ch is sounded like sh ; as in chevalier, chicanery.

Ch coming before a vowel in arch, is sounded like k ; as in archives, archangel, Archipelago, etc. except in archer, arched, archenemy, etc.

Ch coming before a consonant has uniformly the sound of tch ; as in arch-bislvop, arch-duke, etc.

D

D in every position, has the «ame sound except in hopped, puffed, passed, etc. where it sounds like t

E

E has three different sounds. 1. A long sound ; as in me, glebe, complete, etc. 2. A short sound ; as in bed, men, etc. 3. An obscure sound ; as in ebony, merry. At the end of words, e is silent except in monosyllables ; as me, he, she, or in words of Greek origin ; as catastrophe, Penelope, etc., or in ere, gre, tre, in which it sounds like close u, as in acre, meagre, centre. It sometimes softens the preceding consonants ; as in grace, face, oblige, since, etc. Also the preceding consonant is lengthened by it ; as in man, mane ; can, cane ; pin, pine, etc

F

F has an uniform sound in every position except in of, in which it takes the sound of v. But when it is compounded w T ith another word ; as in whereof, thereof, the f has its usual sound-

G

G has two sounds ;. one hard and guttural, the other soft likej. Before e, i and y, g is soft ; as in genius, gesture, ginger, Egypt, except in get, gew-gaw, finger, craggy, and some others. G is always hard at the end of words ; as in bag, snug, gig. Before a, 0, u, I and r, it is hard ; as in gave, gone, gale, glory, great. G before n is silent ; as in gnash, sign, etc. Gn at the end of words protracts the preceding vowel ; as in condign, malign, resign, impugn, etc. At the beginning of words gh has the sound of g hard ; as in ghost, ghostly. In the middle of words, it is silent ; as in night, right, might, etc. At the end of words it is often silent ; as in plough. It often has the sound of f at the end of words; as in cough, laugh, rough, tough. Sometimes the g only is sounded as in burgh, burgher.

fit

H has an articulate sound ; as in hay, hat, house. After r, it is always silent ; as in rhyme, rhetoric, rheumatism. At the beginning of words it is always sounded ; except in heir, herb, honest, honor, hour. A final h preceded by a vowel, is always silent ; as in hah ! ah ! oh !

I

/has two sounds — a long sound ; as in fine, pine — short; as in pin, tin. It often sounds like short u; as in thirty, first — like short e ; as in virtue, birth. It has the sound of long e ; in machine, magazine, bombazine.

J

J has the exact sound of soft g ; except in hallelujah, where it is sounded like y.

K

K has the sound of c hard. Before e and i, where c is soft, k has a hard sound ; as in king, kept, skirmish. It is silent before n ; as in knight, knock, knave. It is never double except in Habakkuk. When c is used before k, it has a double sound, and the vowel is shortened ; as in pickle.

L

L has a soft liquid sound ; as in blame, lose, willow, barrel. It is sometimes silent ; as in walk, talk, half. L is usually doubled at the end of monosyllables ; as in bill, fill, hall. Where it is preceded by a diphthong, the I only is used ; as hail, mail, toil. At the end of words le is sounded like weak el, in which the e is almost silent ; as in marble, rattle, table,

M

M has uniformly one sound ; as in man, mountain, mill, mash It is never silent. Comptroller is pronounced Controller.

N N has two sounds — one pure ; as in man, not, noble ; the oth* er a ringing sound like ng ; as in thank. Final n, preceded by m, is silent; as in hymn, autumn, solemn^ "The participial termination ing must always have its ringing sound ; as in writing, making, speaking."

O

O has a long and a short sound — long ; as in note, mote-^ short; as in lot, not, sot, mock. Sometimes it has the sound of u ; as in son, come, attorney. Sometimes, also, it takes the sound of oo ; as in prove, move.

P

P has one sound ; as in put, pen, pint ; except in cupboard, in which it is sounded like b. It is sometimes silent ; as in psalter, psalm, Ptolemy; also between m and t; as in empty, tempt Ph is generally sounded like f; as in philosophy, Philip. " It has the sound of v in Stephen, nephew." "Both letters are entirely dropped in phthisic, phthisical."

Q

Q is always followed by u ; as in quadrant, question, queen. Sometimes q is sounded like k; as in conquer, liquor, picturesque* In some words of French origin, the u is silent ; as in coquette, liquorice.

R

R has a guttural sound at the beginning of words; as in run y Rome, rise ; in other positions, a smoother sound ; as in narrow, barber, proud. At the end of words re sounds like ur ; as in lustre, massacre.

S & has a soft sound like z ; as in rose, dismal. It has a hissing sound ; as in sing, sistei; same. It has also the sound of zh ; as in treasure, measure, pleasure, crosier. At the beginning of words it has always a hissing sound, and at the end it has a soft sound ; " except in this, thus, as, yes, surplus, etc. ; and in

2# words terminating in ous ; as in tremendous. Before ion, preceded by a vowel, it has the sound of z ; as in intrusion, illusion. When preceded by a consonant, it has the hissing sound of sh ; as in mansion, conversion. Before e mute, it has the sound of z; as in diffuse, amuse ; and before y final ; as in posy ; also in the words bosom, desire, wisdom, etc. In the words isle, island, demesne, and viscount, s is silent. S, when preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long u is sounded like zh ; as in brazier, osier.

T

T is* sounded in tin, tame. Always before u, and generally before eou when the accent precedes, t has the sound of tch ; as in virtue, nature, righteous. " T before a vowel preceded by the accent, has the sound of sh ; as in propitiation," salvation ; except in such words as tierce, tiara, etc. and unless an s precedes ; as in question, and excepting also derivatives from words ending in ty ; as in weightiest, mightiest. Th has two sounds ; the one soft and flat ; as in thus, weather, heathen ; the other hard and sharp ; as in thin, thick, breath. Th initial is short, as in thank, thick, thunder, except in that, then, thus, thither, and some others. Th final of words is also sharp ; as in death, breath, mouth ; except in with, both, beneath, etc. Th medial is sharp ; as in panther, orthodoxy misanthrope ; except in worthy, farthing, brethren, etc. Between two vowels, th is flat in pure English words ; as in gather, neither, whether ; and sharp in words from the learned languages; as in athirst, method.

Th in Thames, Thomas, thyme, phthisic, asthma and their compounds, is pronounced like t.

U

£7 has three sounds.

1. The long sound; as in cubic, tune, tube.

2. The short ; as in tab, butter, justice.

3. The middle; as in art/id, pulpit, pull. U JJ forming a syllable by itself, is nearly equivalent to you, and requires the article a and not an before it ; as unite, union" U in bury, sounds like short e ; in busy, like short i ; as berry, bizzy. After r and rh open u ; as rheubarb, rude, and the diphthong ue and ai take the sound of oo ; as in rue, fruit, fruitful.

V

V always sounds like flattened/; as in live, love, voice, vulture.