Hero patriots of the nineteenth century

Chapter I Page

THE PENINSULAR WAR I

MARTIN DIAZ, STYLED EL EJVIPECINADO, THE SPANISH GUERILLA CHIEF, 1809 — 1820

Martin Diaz a " Martyred Patriot " — Guerilla Warfare in Spain — Napier's Testimony — The Chief Guerilla Leaders — Their Work for Spain — Mina's Exploits — Birth and Early Life of Diaz — His Popular Name, El Empecinado — His First Deeds as a Guerilla — His Person and Character — His Successes in 1810-1812 — Unsubdued to the Last — His Wonderful Escapes from Utmost Peril — The Scene at the Inn — The Treacherous Innkeeper — Appearance of Diaz — Saved by a Young French Officer — Diaz' Grateful Return for Kindness — Diaz' Adventure with another French Officer — The Guerilla Chiefs Marvellous Coolness — His Escape — Death of his Betrayer — Becomes a Champion of Freedom against Ferdinand VII. — His Arrest and Tragical Death — The Degradation of Spain.

Chapter II The Tyrolese War 1809 ..... 30

ANDREAS HOFER J TEIMERJ SPECHBACHER ; HASPINGER

Tyrol and the Tyrolese— Early History — Country becomes Subject to Austria — Attachment of People to House of Hapsburg— Resistance against Bavaria in 1703— Against the French in 1 797 — The Brave Peasant- Woman — The Tyrolese and Marshal Ney in 1805 — Country handed over vi Contents

to Bavarian Rule (1806) — Bavarian Tyranny — Popular Feeling aroused — Andreas Hofer, the " Sandwirth," his Early Career — His Character as a Man and a Leader — Hofer and the Austrian Government — The Archduke John — A Rising planned — War between France and Austria — Personal Appearance and Costume of Hofer — The Time for Action arrives — Description of Teimer, Spechbacher, and Haspinger — The Rising of April, 1809 — The First Action of the War — The Peasants, Bavarians, and French at the Gorge of Brixen — Hofer and his Men victorious at Sterzing Moos — The Brave Tyrolese Girl — Spechbacher and his Followers in the Inn Valley — His Capture of Hall — Tyrolese Women escort Bavarian Prisoners — Teimer arrives in aid — The Patriots capture Innsbruck — French and Bavarians capitulate — Other Tyrolese Successes — Hofer clears the Southern Country — Napoleon's Wrath — A New Invasion of Tyrol by Marshal Lefebvre — Fierce Battle at the Strub Pass — Bavarians' Heavy Loss — Austrian General Chastelar defeated — Enemy advance on Innsbruck — Cruelty of French Troops — Marshal Lefebvre enters Innsbruck — Hofer driven back to Passeyr Valley — He raises Fresh Forces — Spechbacher's Grand Success — Occupies Innsbruck — Joins Hofer— The Tyrolese Victory at Berg Isel — Arrival of Teimer — Father Haspinger in Action — Another Brave Tyrolese Girl — Fierce Fighting — Hofer's Splendid Charge — Enemy retreat in Night — Innsbruck again won by Patriots — Further Successes of Tyrolese — Effect on Tyrolese Cause of Archduke Charles' Defeat at Wagram — The People abandoned by Austria — Tyrolese resolve to act alone — The " Sandwirth " chosen as Commander-in-Chief — Napoleon's Resolve to crush Resistance — Marshal Lefebvre with Great Force enters Innsbruck — Hofer's Memorable Reply to Demand for Surrender — His March from the Passeyr Valley — Spechbacher and Haspinger again in the Field — Desperate Resistance to Lefebvre's Advance on Brixen — The Tyrolese "Stone-Batteries " — The French Marshal driven back near Sterzing — Hofer and Spechbacher defeat him at Sterzing Moos — Lefebvre retires to Innsbruck — The Great Battle of Berg Isel — Hofer, Haspinger, and Spechbacher in Command — Tyrolese at first repulsed — The Patriots rally — Lefebvre finally beaten with Loss of Guns — He abandons Innsbruck — Tyrolese, for the Third Time, have their Capital — Hofer's Triumphal Entry — Calms the Excited Patriots — Assumes

Contents vii

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Office as Governor of Tyrol — His Simple Manners — His Excellent Rule — Austrian Emperor confirms Hofer's Position — Tyrolese Dismay on News of Treaty of Schonbrunn — Tyrol abandoned to Napoleon — New Invasions by French and Bavarians in Immense Force — Spechbacher defeated at Strub Pass — Hofer, about to submit, roused by Haspinger — The Struggle revived — Bavarian Cruelties — Tyrolese defeated at Berg Isel — Hofer bids Peasants lay down Arms — Retires to Passeyr Valley — The " Sandwirth " again in Field — His and Haspinger's Successes — The Patriots overcome by Superior Forces — Hofer in Concealment near his Home — Atrocious Cruelty of Bavarians — Haspinger escapes to Vienna — Spechbacher's Romantic Adventures — His Marvellous Escapes — Hofer's Life in Hiding — His Refusal to escape to Vienna — Price set on his Head — A Tyrolese Traitor — Hofer seized at Last — Cruel Treatment of the Hero — His Passage down Passeyr Valley — Generous Behaviour of French Commander, Baraguay d'Hilliers — Hofer conveyed to Mantua — Tried by Court Martial at Napoleon's Order — The "Corsican's" Cruelty and Duplicity — French General Bisson tries to save Hofer — The Patriot refuses Conditions — His Death by shooting at Mantua— Relics of the Hero at Innsbruck — Final Interment at Capital of Tyrol — The Monument in the Great Church — Spechbacher and Haspinger lie beside him.

CHAPTER III THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE l82I — 1827 . 73

A GROUP OF HEROES : GEORGIOS KARAISKAKIS ; MARKOS BOZZARIS ; ANDREAS MIAULIS J KONSTANTINOS KANARIS

Greek Independence — How effected — Character of Struggle — Greece in 18th Century — Effect of French Revolution — Chief Elements of Greek Population — The Primates — The Klephts — Turkish Oppression — The Poet Pheraeos — Rising Spirit of Revolution — Sultan Mahmoud II. — Failure of First Insurrection — The Rising in Southern Greece — Cruel Deeds of Greeks — Events in the Morea — Kolokotrones — Rising North of Morea — State of Athens — Christians blockade Acropolis — Mesolonghi in Revolt — Successes of Patriots — The Naval Contest — Islands of Hydra, Psara, and Spetzas — More Greek Cruelty — Greek Raids on Asia viii Contents

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Minor — The Rival Fleets meet — The Greek Leader Miaulis — Greek Fire-ships at Work — Turkish Cruelties — Fighting in the Morea — Turks defeated — Navarin taken by Greeks — Bad Conduct of Greek Leaders — Success of Egyptian Squadron against Greeks — The Hapless Fate of Scio (Khios) — Greek Fleet in Action — Turkish Liner destroyed by Fire-ship — The War in Western Greece (1822) — Markos Bozzaris — Greeks defeated at Petta — The First Siege of Mesolonghi — Turkish Assault repulsed — Greeks capture Acropolis of Athens — The Morea invaded by Sultan's Forces — Greek Victories — The Brave Leader Niketas — Capture of Nauplia — Greek and Turkish Fleets — Kanaris burns Turkish Liner — Campaign of 1 823 — Heroism and Death of Bozzaris — The Greek Mariners on Asiatic Coast — Lord Byron's Arrival and Death — His Opinion of Greeks — Waste of Money contributed for Greek Cause — Sultan Mahmoud's New Policy — Revives Turkish Naval Power — Aided by Mehemet Ali of Egypt — Turks capture Psara and Kasos — Skilful Operations — The Men of Hydra and Spetzas at Sea — Actions with Turkish and Egyptian Vessels — Energy of Miaulis — Morea invaded by Ibrahim Pasha — Capture of Navarin — Greek Defeats in Morea — The Second Siege of Mesolonghi — Heroic Defence — Greek and Turkish Fleets in Conflict — Repulse of Turkish Attacks on Mesolonghi — Karaiskakis arrives to aid Greeks — Ibrahim Pasha joins Besiegers — Greek Vessels come up — Assaults repulsed at Mesolonghi — The Great Sortie — Part of Garrison escape — The Place taken by Turks — Ibrahim ravages the Morea — Turkish Siege of Athens — Karaiskakis' Efforts for Relief — Siege of the Acropolis — Relieving Forces defeated — Acropolis surrendered — End of Struggle by Gree s.

Chapter IV The South American Revolution . . . . 1 28

SIMON BOLIVAR, l8ll — 183O

Simon Bolivar, El Libertador — His early Career — Gross Misrule of Spanish Colonies in South America — Rising at Caracas in 1810 — Bolivar joins the Venezuelan Revolt — Is obliged to surrender Puerto Cabello — Retires to Cartagena — Takes Field in New Granada — His success against Ro3^alists —

Contents ix

Invades Venezuela — Atrocious Cruelty of Spaniards — Bolivar's Campaign of 1813 — Spanish General Monteverde defeated — Bolivar enters Caracas in Triumph — The Llaneros of the Orinoco join the Patriots — The Margaritans — Monteverde again defeated — Campaign of 1814 — Success of Royalists under Boves — Bolivar defeated — Caracas and La Guayra taken by Spaniards — Bolivar in New Granada — Captures Santa Fe — Large Reinforcements arrive from Spain — Spanish General Morillo successful — Bolivar retires to Jamaica (1815J — Morillo seizes Santa Fe (Bogota) — Cruelties — Spanish attempt to assassinate Bolivar in Jamaica — He goes to Haiti (Santa Domingo) — Aided by a Dutchman, Luis Brion — Renews Venezuelan War in December 1816 — His Heroic Conduct — Joined by Paez, Llanero Leader — Campaign of 1 81 7 — Bolivar defeats Morillo — Paez successful — Bolivar at Angostura — Campaign of 1818 — Great Success of Patriots — Bolivar's Grand Campaign — Venezuelan Independence proclaimed — Campaign of 1819 — Bolivar in Supreme Power — Joined by a British " Legion " — His General Success in Field — Invades New Granada — His Great March across the Cordilleras — Difficulties overcome — The Scene among the Mountains — Arrival on New Field of Action — Spaniards defeated — Courage of British Infantry — Bolivar's Dashing Leadership — His Great Victory at Boyaca (August 17, 1819) — Triumphant Entry into Bogota (Santa Fe) — Bolivar appointed President of New Granada Republic — Returns to Angostura — His Reception by the People — Venezuela and New Granada United as "Republic of Colombia" — Bolivar, as President, troubled b}^ Dissensions — A Six-months' Truce with Royalists — Renewal of War — Campaign of 1821 — Bolivar's Rapid Success — Santa Marta stormed — His Victory at Carabobo, in Venezuela — He captures La Guayra — Grand Entry into Caracas — Spaniards cleared out of Colombia — Bolivar in Peru — General Sucre's Victory for Patriots at Pichincha — Bolivar enters Lima and receives Dictatorial Authority — Independence of South American States recognised — Bolivar again in Field against Spanish Forces — Grand Review of his Army — He defeats the Royalists— Resigns his Peruvian Dictatorship and returns to Colombia (1826) — Upper Peru becomes " Bolivia" — Attempts on his Life by Royalist Party — Assailed by Calumny— His Great Scheme for South America — Movement against his Measures in Peru — The Country pacified

Contents

— Bolivar in Supreme Power in Colombia (1828) — Civil Strife arises— Bolivar resigns Office ( 1 830)— His Death- Character of Bolivar — His Great Services — In Advance of his Age — Honours to his Memory at a Later Day.

Chapter V

Abd-el-Kader, a Truly Great Mohammedan — Eulogy by Marshal Soult — His Grand Position in Nineteenth Century — Birth and Early Life — Precocious Ability — His Father's High Character — The Hero in Early Manhood — His Personal Appearance — Equestrian Skill — High Reputation among Arabs of Algeria — Pilgrimage to Mecca — Returns to Algeria (1828) — A Period of Religious Seclusion — Description of Algeria — The People — The Kabyles — Cause of Quarrel with France — Turkish Mode of Rule — Application of Arab Patriots to Mahhi-ed-Din — The Rising against the French Invaders — Defeat of French under General Bourmont — Abd-el-Kader in Council — His First Action with French — His Marvellous Courage — A Leader needed for Arabs — Abd-el-Kader chosen — His Reception at Mascara — Grand Review of Arab Warriors — Abd-el-Kader's Measures and Way of Life — Conflicts with the French under General Desmichels — Abd-el-Kader subdues Native Opponents — He again defeats Desmichels — Further Arab Success — Desmichels makes Treaty with the Sultan — His Conflicts with Disaffected Arabs — Enforces Submission — Organises Government of Oran — Spread of his Fame and Power — Count D'Erlon as New French Governor-General — Abd-el Kader's Skilful Diplomacy— His Defeats of General Trezel at the Sig and the Macta — D'Erlon recalled — Succeeded by Marshal Clausel — the New Governor-General's Proclamation — Abd-el-Kader's First Success against Clausel — The Sultan's Defeat — Meeting with his Mother — Tribes rally round Abd-el-Kader — His Noble Spirit — He defeats Clausel — The Sultan's Marvellous Energy — Fierce Courage of his Men — French General Bugeaud's Victory at the Sikkah — Abd-el-Kader's New System of Warfare — Clausel again Governor-General — Harassed by Sultan — Abd-el- Kader makes with Bugeaud the " Treaty of the Tafna " — A Triumph for the Sultan — His Success over Hostile

Contents xi

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Tribes— His Political Work in 1839— His Great Fame— His Grand Ideal for the Arabs— Adhesion of the Kabyles— Renewed Warfare with French -The New Governor- General, Marshal Valee — His Base Treachery— Abd-el- Kader takes the Field — Conflict in the Mountains — The French Victorious— The Sultan returns to Irregular Warfare — The French severely harassed — Arrival of General Bugeaud — His New System of Warfare — His Able Subordinates— The Campaign of 1841 — Abd-el-Kader's Skilful Movements — Campaign of 1842 — Indecisive Results — French gaining Ground slowly — The Sultan forms his Smala— His Kindly Deeds— The Bishop of Algiers— Abdel-Kader's Treatment of Captives — The Capture and Dispersal of the Smala — A Terrible Blow — The Hero struggles on — His Wonderful Courage — Appeals to British Government — The Sultan declines the Throne of Morocco — Campaigns of 1844 and 1845 — Marshal Bugeaud again in Field— His System of Warfare— Abd-el-Kader's Movements — Campaign of 1846 — The Sultan in Morocco — Decline of his Cause — French Eulogy of a Great Man — Campaign of 1847 — Sultan defeats Moroccan Forces — His Return to Algiers — Surrenders himself to Lamoriciere — Sent to France — Violation of French Pledge — End of Abd-el-Kader's Public Career — His Grand Character — Four Years' Imprisonment in France — Louis Napoleon's Efforts on his Behalf — The ex-Sultan insists on Fulfilment of French Promise — His Life in Captivity — Released by Louis Napoleon — His Reception in Paris — Leaves France for Broussa — Visits France — Settles at Damascus— His Noble Conduct in i860 — Abd-el-Kader's Decorations from European Powers — Receives Letter from Schamyl — Visits Mecca and Medina — In Paris and England — His Death (1883) — Marvellous Character of his Career.

Chapter VI Schamyl Of The Caucasus 1824 — 1859 . . 236

The Caucasus in Legend and History — Region as viewed from Mount Ararat — The Lofty Peaks — The Rivers — The Two Chief Passes — The Fine Scenery — The Various Peoples — First Russian Aggression — General Paskiewitch — His Plan of Conquest — Russian Opeiations — Defeat of General Williamenoff— The Campaign cf 1839 — End of Warfare in xii Contents

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Circassia Proper— Birth and Early Life of Schamyl— His Youthful Character and Mental Training— Social and Political Condition of Eastern Caucasia — Schamyl's First Appearance in Field — His First Escape — Death in Battle of Caucasian Leader — Schamyl's Second Escape, with Bad Wound — His Recovery and Appointment as Leader — Schamyl's Personal Appearance and Qualifications — The Campaign of 1836 — Success of Caucasians — Schamyl's " Crusade " — General Golovine in Command for Russia — The Siege of Akhulgo — Russian Assaults repulsed — Terrible Losses of Assailants — Final Success of Russians — Schamyl's Mysterious Escape — His Zealous Efforts — Guerilla Warfare maintained — Campaign of 1842 — General Grabbe's Advance against Dargo — The Caucasians drive back Enemy with Severe Loss — Woronzoff in Command for Russia — His Plan of Operations — His Advance on Dargo — Desperate Resistance of Caucasians — Dargo captured — Woronzoff barely rescued — Schamyl's Raids — His Daring Campaign in 1846 — Complete Success — Warfare of 1847 — Akhulgo captured by Russians (1849) — Gradual Decline of Caucasian Power — The Crimean War — The Struggle in Caucasus resumed — Schamyl at last succumbs — Effect of his Rule in Caucasia — His Honourable Treatment by Russians — His Life at Kaluga — Death at Medina — His Lasting Fame.

Chapter VII

DANIELE MANIN (1831 — 1849) AND GIUSEPPE GARI- BALDI (1847 — i860) ...... 267

The Freedom of Italy — The Country as settled in 181 5 — The Patriot Mazzini — Pope Pius IX. — The Movement for Freedom in 1848 — Manin's Noble Career — His Birth and Early Life — His Excellent Political Methods — His Arrest by Austrian Tyrants — Austrian "Justice" exposed — Progress of Revolution in Italy — Manin released — The Rising in Venice — Capture of the Arsenal — Manin's Daring — Venice all in Arms — Expulsion of Austrian Authorities — A Republic proclaimed — Failure of Revolution in Italy — Manin and the Venetians alone against Austria — Blockade of Venice — Preparations for Defence — Zealous Devotion of the People — Manin chosen "Dictator" — His Diplomatic Efforts in behalf of Venice — The Terrible

Contents xiii

Tidings from Novara — General Haynau in Command against Venice — New Preparations for Resistance — The Patriotic Jews — Complete blockade established — Demeanour of Citizens — The Lines of Defence — The Fortress of Malghera— Other Chief Works — Austrian Bombardment begins — Radetzky disappointed — Stout Resistance made — Departure of Haynau — The Bombardment renewed — Terrible Effect of Fire — Malghera and Other Forts abandoned — Austrian Troops blown up — Continuance of Siege — Determined Resistance — New Bombardment — The Bombs from Balloons — Sufferings of Besiegers — The City ravaged by Shot and Shell — Calm Endurance of Venetians — Assailed at last by Famine and Cholera — Capitulation of Venice — Manin's Escape to France — Domestic Calamities — His Hard Lot as an Exile — Death deeply mourned in Venice — Meanness of Austrian Tyrants — Transfer of his Remains from Paris — Monument erected — Garibaldi, his Place in History — His Noble Character — Origin of Family — Birth, Parents, Early Life — Personal Appearance — His Interview with Mazzini — Garibaldi a Conspirator — Flees for His Life — Sails for South America — Brilliant Action for Freedom in Brazil and Argentine State — Garibaldi's Great Purpose for Italy — Sails for Europe (1848) with Men of Italian Legion — The Revolutionary Movement in Italy — Failure of the Cause — Garibaldi's Adventures — The " Roman Republic " — Garibaldi a Defender of Rome — His Defeat of French Forces — Fights against Neapolitan Troops at Velletri — His Narrow Escape — Returns to Rome — City forced to surrender — Garibaldi's Flight — Death of his Wife — Again an Exile — Life in New York — Again at Sea — Returns to Nice — Fights against Austria in 1859 — The Year of Glory (i860) for Garibaldi — The Landing of "The Thousand " at Marsala — The March on Palermo — His Victory at Calatafimi — Garibaldi's Tactics at Monreale — Brilliant Success — He forces Entrance into Palermo — The Final Conquest of Sicily — He crosses to Italy — His Triumphal March — Enters Naples a Conqueror — Victories at the Volturno and Caserta Vecchia— His Qualities as a Commander — Michelet's Eulogy of Garibaldi — His Honours to Mazzini on Death — The Hero's Noble Poverty — Use made of National Gift — His Declining Health — Visits to Milan and Messina — His Death — Honours paid to Memory — The Dirge of Neapolitan Women.

HERO PATRIOTS

OF

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Chapter I The Peninsular War

MARTIN DIAZ, STYLED EL EMPECINADO, THE SPANISH GUERILLA CHIEF, 1809 — 1820

Martin Diaz a "Martyred Patriot" — Guerilla Warfare in Spain — Napier's Testimony — The Chief Guerilla Leaders — Their Work for Spain — Mina's Exploits — Birth and Early Life of Diaz — His Popular Name, El Empecinado — His First Deeds as a Guerilla — His Person and Character — His Successes in 1810-1812 — Unsubdued to the Last— His Wonderful Escapes from Utmost Peril — The Scene at the Inn — The Treacherous Innkeeper — Appearance of Diaz — Saved by a Young French Officer — Diaz' Grateful Return for Kindness — Diaz' Adventure with another French Officer — The Guerilla Chief's Marvellous Coolness — His Escape — Death of his Betrayer — Becomes a Champion of Freedom against Ferdinand VII. — His Arrest and Tragical Death — The Degradation of Spain.

" r I ^HE most triumphant death," writes Southey, in his JL Life of 'Nelson , "is that of the martyr; the most awful that of the martyred patriot ; the most splendid that of the hero in the hour of victory." The destiny of the first man on our " fame's eternal bede-roll " of hero-patriots in the nineteenth century brought him into the second of these classes. Martin Diaz was, if ever man deserved the title, a martyred patriot. He fought for his country against the invading forces of Napoleon. He died on the scaffold, a victim to the cruelty and perfidy of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, the monarch whom he had helped, according to the measure of his ability and resources, to replace upon the throne.

"Guerilla," or petty warfare, a diminutive of the Spanish word guerra^ war, is the origin of the name guerillas, applied to the light-armed irregular fighters who, notably in Spain, have from time to time maintained a patriotic struggle against foreign invaders, or taken opposite sides in civil war. In the spring of the year 1809 much of Spain seemed crushed and helpless in the grasp of the great French conqueror. The Spanish regular armies had been severely defeated at Molino del Rey, Medellin, and in other actions. Saragossa, after one gallant and successful defence, had succumbed before the attacks of the able and energetic Marshal Lannes. Sir John Moore, in the face of overwhelming force, had retreated to Coruna. Joseph Bonaparte was back in Madrid. In this position of affairs came again to pass that which was written by Macaulay concerning the contest waged in the corresponding period of the previous century, the War of the Succession in Spain : " There is no country in Europe which it is so easy to overrun as Spain ; there is no country in Europe which it is more difficult to conquer. Nothing can be more contemptible than the regular military resistance which Spain offers to an invader ; nothing more formidable than the energy which she puts forth when her regular military resistance has been beaten down. Her armies have long borne too much resemblance to mobs ; but her mobs have had, in an unusual degree, the spirit of armies. The soldier, as compared with other soldiers, is deficient in military qualities ; but the peasant has as much of those qualities as the soldier."

Spantsb Guerillas 3

It must not, of course, be supposed for a moment that Spain owed her deliverance from Napoleon's power mainly, as Spanish vanity has affirmed, to Spanish energy and valour. As the country was freed from British and German intervention, in the early years of the eighteenth century, by French troops under the Duke of Berwick, so was she delivered from French invaders, in the early years of the nineteenth century, by the British troops of Wellington. The Spanish irregulars gave important aid, as a brief summary of their operations will show. The guerilla bands, which made their first appearance in 1809, varied greatly in their composition and character. Some differed little from hordes of brigands, and included, as Napier declares, " every robber who feared a jail, or could break from one; every smuggler whose trade had been interrupted ; every friar disliking the trammels of his convent ; every idler who wished to avoid the ranks of the regular army." There were guerilla chiefs who, in the necessity of providing subsistence for their men, and with the desire of attracting and attaching followers, freely plundered their own countrymen, and became, in various districts, a scourge to Spain. Other chiefs, actuated by nobler motives, by revenge for their country's wrongs, by a gallant spirit, and by honest ambition, thought to serve their country better as guerillas than they could by joining the regular forces. The better class of irregular fighters was composed of peasants who, in the heat of patriotic zeal and religious fanaticism, took up arms against the French, and chose leaders, whom they served without being paid or dressed in uniform.

Success in their peculiar mode of warfare helped to sustain the confidence of the people in the final issue of the struggle, and encouraged them in determined resistance. The guerillas' knowledge of the country, especially of the by-paths and short cuts among the mountains, combined with their endurance and swiftness of foot, was of great value in conveying intelligence to the British leaders, while heartfelt hatred of the French was, in general, a sure guarantee of fidelity to the cause of Spain. There were, as the war proceeded, many thousands of guerillas who joined Wellington's forces, and, after undergoing a course of discipline, rendered good service as regular troops. We need not here enter into the question of the merits and defects of guerilla warfare as against disciplined invaders. The testimony of Sir William Napier is clear and emphatic : " This great unquestionable advantage was derived from the guerillas, and especially by the British; that the French could never communicate with each other, nor combine their movements, except by the slow method of sending officers with strong escorts ; whereas their adversaries could correspond by post, and even by telegraph ; an advantage equal to a reinforcement of fifty thousand men." Among the principal guerilla leaders may be named Renovales and the two Minas in Navarre and Aragon ; Porlier in the Asturias ; Longa in Biscay ; Julian Sanchez in the Gata and Salamanca country; Doctor Rovera and Perena in Catalonia ; the curate Merino, El Principe, and Saormil, in Castile ; the friar Sapia about Soria ; Nebot in Valencia — and the man selected as a noble type of his class, to whom we hope to render his rights anon. Rovera, Julian Sanchez, and the student Mina showed military talents, and Sanchez was a very bold and honest man. Espoz y Mina, the uncle and successor of the student, became very conspicuous, being a man of sound judgment, surprising energy, and constant spirit. By birth a peasant, he despised the higher orders of his own country, and never would suffer any hidalgo (member of the lower-class nobility) to join his band. From 1809 until the end of the war he held the provinces bordering on the Ebro, and, though often defeated and chased from place to place, he yet by degrees increased his force until, in 181 2, he was at the head of more than ten thousand men, regularly paid and supplied by different means, mainly through British succours brought by sea, and also

Guerilla Morfe 5

through an agreement with the French generals, by which everything but warlike stores, coining from France, had his safe-conduct on paying a duty.

In a rapid survey of guerilla work we note that in June, 1809, Mina, the student, was active in the region between Tudela and Pampeluna. The people of the high Pyrenean valleys of Roncal, Salazar, Anso, and Echo, took arms under Renovales. This officer, captured at Saragossa, had broken his parole, but he pleaded a previous breach of the capitulation. His chief post was the convent of San Juan de la Pena, built upon a rock remarkable in Spanish history as a place of refuge maintained with success against the Moorish conquerors. The bodies of twenty-two kings of Aragon rested there, and the Aragonese fondly believed it impregnable. There were twenty thousand armed men in the various bands of this region, who at once set to work in cutting off isolated men, intercepting couriers and convoys, and attacking detachments of the French army. The student Mina, after keeping Navarre in commotion by hardy and sudden enterprises, was ultimately captured by the skilful and energetic French general, Suchet, and was succeeded, as we have seen, by his uncle Espoz y Mina.

The general operations of the guerillas constitute a record, as detailed by Napier, of such purport as " The bands in the mountains continued to vex the French communications " ; "the Catalans kept cutting off minor convoys, detachments, and even considerable bodies isolated by the momentary absence of the main French army." As the regular armies of Spain disappeared under the pressure of constant defeat, the bands of guerillas, in 1810, suddenly and surprisingly increased. The regency formed secret guerilla juntas or committees to collect stores and provisions for the irregulars in secure places. District inspectors and paymasters, selected by regular general officers, superintended the discipline and payment of the bands. Particular districts were charged with the furnishing of supplies, and every province was divided into three portions, each to find its quota of men and horses separately, but all to act together when circumstances demanded their union — in fact, all the internal organisation of a regular army was secretly arranged, while the external form was irregular. Towards the end of * 1810, the chief, Porlier, was actively engaged in cutting off small parties of French in the north, and forcing the people to flee with their effects to the mountains whenever the French troops drew near. Campillo's chief aim was to intercept French despatches between Bilbao and Santander. In May, 181 1, the redoubtable Mina defeated, in a pass near Vitoria, twelve hundred men, escorting prisoners and treasure to France. This success was alloyed by the death of two hundred of the Spanish prisoners killed in the tumult, and horribly stained by the cold-blooded murder, after the fight, of six Spanish ladies attached to French officers. The illustrious French marshal Massena had a narrow escape. His baggage was taken, and he was to have gone back to France with this convoy, but remained behind at Vitoria, disliking the discipline of the escort, over which he had no control, as he was under Napoleon's summons of recall to France, and had been replaced by Marmont.