Elementary psychology

Front matter

Class J5Ei^ Rnnk '"B 3

G^ghtM".

COP)CRIGHT DEPOSm

Preface

This work is an attempt to present, with applications, the more important principles of Psychology in a clear and concise form, arranged for High and Normal schools and adapted to the use of teachers and the general reader.

The plan of the work, formed several years since, and pursued throughout the period of its preparatidii, is as follows :

1. The topics are selected for their essential importance, and are treated concisely.

2. Such metaphysical discussion as does not belong to an elementary work is omitted or placed in foot-notes. The importance of Physiological Psychology is duly regarded.

3. Practical applications of the science are made to Education and the Conduct of Life.

4. In connection with Thinking an outline of Logic is presented.

5. The presentation of many of the topics is inductive in the sense that typical instances precede the statement of principles. For emphasis and convenience the definitions and many principles, summaries, and inferences are printed in different type. >

6. For fuller views on some of the topics and for

Preface, comparison of opinions, references are made to a brief list of available works.

7. Exercises, calculated to test the skill and invite the research of the student, are placed at the end of each subject.

The author believes that Practical Psychology has a place in Secondary Schools generally as well as in Normal Schools, because so many of the students of these schools complete their formal education in them, and because so many of them become teachers. In the experience of life every one is in some way a teacher, and every one should have in view at least the further development of his own powers.

This work was carefully read in manuscript by B. F. Hayes, D.D., Professor of Psychology and Logic in Bates College, and the " Applications" were reviewed by one of the most distinguished exponents, in this country, of sound educational theory. The author is indebted to these gentlemen for valuable suggestions ; he however holds himself responsible for whatever views are presented in the work.

Many of the volumes referred to in the preparation of this book are mentioned in the list for reference, hence no further acknowledgment of indebtedness to authors is needed than the list itself, and the numerous references in the foot-notes.

The library of every school in which Psychology is taught should contain at least the shorter list of reference books upon the subject. Before beginning this work the pupil is supposed to have studied Hutchison's Physiology, or its equivalent.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.

1. If the time allotted for tlie study permit, the pupil should refer to the authorities indicated iu the foot-notes and report his investigations in class; if desired, other authors may readily be substituted for those noted.

2. In many instances the "Applications" should be referred to the principles which they apply ; this work is facilitated by the cross-references between topics and applications.

3. The " Exercises" may be increased at the discretion of the teacher. It would be well to mark out illustrative work for each method of Psychological inquiry (see p. 19), and use it as progress in the study may require.

Additional exercises in Introspection will readily suggest themselves.

Study through the ivords and acts of others may be illustrated by comparing one's own experience with that of others under similar conditions ; by observing the deeds of others in given circumstances ; by noting the effect upon expression of success, of a harsh word, of a smile, etc., etc.

Study of Children may be successfully invited. Let the pupil observe or learn of early instances of well-defined perception, of implicit judgment, of implicit reasoning.

Study through Biography, History ami Literature is

Suggestions to Teachers. - easy to illustrate. From results in character infer the motives of some noted man ; conjecture liis emotional life as determined by certain events ; read autobiographical sketches. Analyze the spirit of the French people just preceding the Eevolution. Select passages, showing a profound knowledge of the human mind, from the play of " Hamlet ;" learn what is implied as to the beliefs of men by their use of common psychological terms.

For Physiological Study observe for instance the effect of fatigue upon memory.

In connection with the " Applications" Discussion of the Theory and Practice of Teaching may be carried to any extent.

While work of the kind suggested above is an essential part of the true method in Psychology, it should not be regarded as in any sense a substitute for systematic text-book work.

4. The sections numbered 59, 60, 65-69, 72-87 are devoted to Logic ; it is thought that most schools will desire to use the amount of Logic here presented. The belief is growing that no course of secondary instruction is complete which omits the principles and forms of Logic and examples of the fallacies into which people are easily led. It is hoped that this feature of the book will esj)ecially recommend it. In connection with this outline some such work as Jevons' Primer of Logic, in the hands of the teacher, wdll prove suggestive and helpful.

5. The " Table of Contents" is a complete analysis of the whole subject by sections and paragraphs, and it may be followed in formal recitation.

Contents

INTRODUCTORY TOPICS.

PAGE

1. Nature of the Study. External World and Internal World. Mind and Psychology defined 17

Introduction

33. Nature of Representation. Illustration. Nature. Definition. Representation and Perception ; Representation and higher processes 73

34. Varieties of Representation. Examples. Delinitions . 70

35. Differences and Agreements in Representation (53, i). Difference and agreement as condition of Retentiveness; difference and agreement involved in Representation 76

MEMORY.

36. Primary Laws of Association (53, 2-4). Example of sequence in memory. Law of Resemblance; of Contrast; of Contiguity; of Cause and Efiect. How natural and incidental associations in acquisition become the principles of association in Memory; Dr. Porter's statement of the comprehensive principle

of association. Bain's statement of the principle 77

37. Secondary Laws of Association (53, sio). Some associated ideas more likely to be recalled than others. The Secondary Laws Sumnuxry. Diagram 80

38. The Principle of Contiguity Applied to Aggregates, Movements, Auditory and Visual Trains, Parallel Trains . . 83

39. Language (53, ii). Knowdedge seeks sensible expression. Words and Images. Language and Thinking 84

40. Memory Necessary to the Idea of Time 86

41. Varieties of Memory (53, 12-15). The kind of memory due to what; remarkable visual and auditory Memory; Ready Memory; Retentive Memory. Circumstantial Memory. Philosophical Memory 87

42. Permanent Acquisition at Different Periods of Life. In

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youth and old age. Bain's view of the proper age for different acquisitions 88

43. Power and Cultivation of Memory (53, 16-17). Pascal; possibility of recalling all the experience of the past. Conditions of Memory. Memory improved by exercise. In advanced years memory aided by previous knowledge 89

PHANTASY.

44. Illustrations. Summary. Day-dreams. Sleep, Somnambulism. Delirium, Insanity. Summary 91

45. Hallucinations. Examples not amounting to hallucination. Hallucination explained 93

46. Laws of Association in Phantasy 94

IMAGINATION,

47. Illustrations and Definition. Characteristics .... 95

48. Cognitive Imagination (54. i) 96

49. Inventive or Philosophic Imagination (54, 2) . . . .97 50- .Esthetic or Poetic Imagination (54, 3 4). The architect,

musician, sculptor, painter, poet 98

51. The Ethical Imagination. The Perfect 98

52. Growth of Imagination (.54, 5). Imagination of children; taste. Cultivated in any direction 99

APPLICATIONS.

53. Principles of Memory Applied, i (35). Clear apprehension a condition of memory. 2 (36). Noting resemblance and contrast aids the memory. 3 (36) Study in logical order.

4 (36). Questioning may form important bonds of association.

5 (37). Attention the condition of memory. 6 (37). Length of lessons, emphasis, repetition. 7 (37). Bodily vigor and memory. 8 (37). Expressing ideas fixes them. 9(37). Repetition. 10 (37). Interest. 11 (39). Memory of ideas not of words. 12 (41). Economy of memory. 13 (41). Memory of principles; Memory of important things. i4(4l). Value of 'forgotten knowledge. 15 (41). When to employ absolute memory. 16 (43). Mnemonics.

17 (43). Value of a well-stored memory 99

54. Applications of the Facts and Principles of the Imagination. 1 (48). Description ; construct the unknown from tlie known. 2 (49). Education of the inventive imagination. 3 (50). Value of tales and mythology. 4 (50). Value of ideals. 5 (52). Abuse of the imagination 103

THINKING.

INTRODUCTION.

55. The Processes. Definitions. Recapitulation^ Conception. Judgment. Reasoning. These processes the essential

PAGE

ones iu Thinking. Definitions. Products of the various activities 108

56. Thinking Considers Relations 110

CONCEPTION.

57. The Processes. The Concept. Illustration. The mental reality correspoudiug to a general term; definition of concept. Abstract notions ..... c Ill

58. Growth of the Power (88, 89). Examples of early use of the power. Further development. Conceptual power of the uneducated , 112

59. Scientific Classification. Example from Zoology. Cross- Divisions. Diagram. Advantages of Classification^ .... 113

60. Content and Extent 116

61. Use of Language in Thinking. Names and classes. Use of language in judgment and reasoning; abstract notions. Language sometimes inadequate „ 117

62. Abuse of Words. Clearness of Concepts (90, 91) Conditions occasioning confusion in the use of language. Examples of words that may lead to confusion. How to avoid error

in the use of words 118

JUDGMENT.

63. Nature and Growth of Judgment (88, 89) 120

64. Beliefs. Sources of Belief. Prejudice. Experience . 121

65. Terms. Meaning of "Term." Singular, General, and Collective Terms. Concrete and Abstract Terms. Positive and Negative Terms. Test examples 122

66. The Proposition, Analysis of. The elements of a proposition. Instances in which the three elements are not apparent 123

67. Categorical, Hypothetical, and Disjunctive Propositions. Kinds of Categorical Propositions 124

68. Distribution of Terms. The universal affirmative. The universal negative. The particular affirmative. The particular negative. Summary . 125

69. Implied Judgments. Opposition. Diagram of the relations of Opposition. Contrary Opposition. Subalternation. Contradictory Opposition. Conversion of Propositions. By limitation. Simple Conversion. Conversion by Negation. Addition of ISuhject and Predicate. Addition of Marks. Privative Conception. Importance of studying Implied Judgments 128

REASONING.

INTRODUCTION.

70. Nature of Reasoning. Deduction; The Syllogism; Induction. Office of each intellectual power; office of Reason. . 131

71. Growth of Reasoning (88, 89) 133

72. Use of Logic 134

PAGE DEDUCTIVE REASONING.

73. Nature and Form of the Syllogism. Canons. Example; terms applied to the parts of a S}' llogism. The canons explained and Staled 134

74. Rules of the Syllogism. Rules stated. Rules applied to test typical example. Logical Fallacies. Violations of Rule 1 : Fallacy of More than Three Terms; Fallacy of Equivocation; Fallacy of Composition; Fallacy of Division. Bide II. Rule HI: Fallacy of Undistributed Middle. Rule IV: Fallacy of Illicit Process of Major or Minor Term. Rule V: Fallacy of Negative Premises. Rule VI. Rule VII. Rule VIII . . . .136

75. Moods. Figures. Sixty-four moods. Three Figures. Why omitted 142

76. The Enthymeme . 143

77. Hypothetical Syllogism. Three classes of propositions; Constructive Hypothetical Syllogism; Destructive Hypothetical Syllogism; rule. Fallacy of Conditionals. Stated in categorical form 143

78. Disjunctive Syllogism. Affirmative mood ; Negative mood. Principle of Disjunctive Syllogism. Stated in categorical form 144

79. Dilemma. Simple Constructive form; Complex Constructive; Simple Destructive; Complex Destructive. Horns of

the Dilemma; additional alternative 145

80. Material Fallacies. General statement. Fallacia Accidentis. Fallacy of Shifting Ground; Fallacy of Many Questions. Petitio Principii; Question-Begging Epithets. Ignoratio Elenchi; Argumentum ad Hominem; Argumentum ad Populum. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam; Fallacy as to Burden

of Proof; Argument from Consequences 147

EXERCISES IX DEDUCTIVE REASONING. . . .150 INDUCTIVE REASONING.

81. Nature of Induction. Origin of the premises used in Deduction; definition of Induction^ History of Induction . . 151

82. The Processes Named "Perfect Induction," "Mathematical Induction," and " Colligation of Facts," as Viewed by Mill. Distinction made b}^ Mr. Mill. Perfect Induction, Mathematical Induction. Colligation of Facts 158

83. Logical Induction. Examples; ground of induction. Certainty in this form of reasoning; examples of error. Definition 154

84. Analogy. Examples ; formula for Analogy. Degree of probability 156

85. Complete Logical Induction. Franklin's experiment; Newton's discovery; the four processes. Many hypotheses sometimes employed 157

86. Cause. Canons of Induction. Antecedent and cause ; definition. The five methods of inferring ca\ises. Method of Agreement. Method of Difterence. Joint jNIethod. Method of Residues. Method of concomitant Variations 158

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87. Fallacies of Induction (91). Fallacies of Observation: Non-observation; Mal-observation. Fallacies of Generalization: Simple Enumeration ; Post Hoc, ergo propter Hoc; False Analogy 160

EXERCISES IN IIVDUCTIVE REASONING 162

APPLICATIONS.

88. The Training of Mental Faculty in the Schools (58, 63, 71). Primary School Period. Grammar School Period. Pligh School Period. General conclusions 163

89. Some Points in Cultivating the Power of Thought (58, 63, 71). From the Particular to the Abstract and (feueral. From the Simple to the Complex. Teach the pupil to think and do for himself. Simple examples of deduction and induction. Analysis and Synthesis 165

90. Training in the Use of Words (62) 168

91. Avoiding the Common Sources of Error in Reasoning

62, 87). Causes of defective reasoning; means of correction . 169

FEELING.

INTRODUCTION.

92. Nature of Feeling. Definition. Classes. Agreeable and Disagreeable 171

93. Relation to Knowledge 172

94. Relation of Feeling to Activity (120). Hamilton's Theory. Examples. Application to education and to all activity . 172

95. Laws of Intensity (120). Laws stated. Illustration of first. Illustration of second. Illustration of third. Illustration

of fourth 173

96. Expression 175

SENSATIONS.

97. Classification of Sensations 176

98. Importance of the Sensations (121). Natural and acquired appetites. Muscular action; Nervousness. Vital Sensations. Special Sensations. Relation of Physical Feelings to education 177

THE EMOTIONS.

99. Nature of the Emotions (122). Definition. Effect of expression. Relation of Emotion to Attention and Memory. Emotion and action. Emotion and habit. Emotions classed as Retrospective, etc. 179

100. Classification. A practical method of classification adopted. Typical examples. Table , 180

EGOISTIC EMOTIONS.

102. Some Important Egoistic Emotions (123). Joys and Sorrows; Content and Discontent; Pride and Humiliation; Satisfaction and Regret; Hope and Fear 182

ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS.

103. Sympathy — Antipathy (124). Nature of sympathy. Sympathy mutual. Influence of sympathy. Growth of sympathy. Nature of antipathy 184

104. Love — Hate (124). Growth of Love. Love an avenue for influence. Forms of love; nature of love. Origin of Hate; Rivalry unworthy. Commendable emulation. Benevolence, Malevolence 185

INTELLECTUAL EMOTIONS.

105. Emotions of Curiosity , . 187

106. Knowledge Emotions 187

107. Truth Emotions • . 188

108. Growth of Love for Knowledge (125) 188

^S'^HETIC EMOTIONS.

109. Nature. Kinds 189

110. Emotions of Beauty. Nature of Beauty. Examples of beautiful objects. No definition. Things which contribute to emotions of Beauty. Beauty subjective or objective .... 190

111. Beauty in Art and Nature. Architecture; sculpture; painting; music. Poetry; patriotism; associations. Beauty in nature 192

112. Taste. Judgment an element. Standard of Taste. Detinitions 193

113. Emotions of Sublimity 193

114. Emotions of the Ludicrous. Incongruity the principle. Wit and humor 1 94

115. Growth of .flGsthetio Emotion (126). Sense of the Ludicrous. Sense of the Beautiful • . . 195

ETHICAL EMOTIONS.

116. Nature. Classes 195

117. Conscience (127). Definition, Its Growth. Practice the Right 196

118. Standard of Conscience. Binding Force of Conscience. Agreement about essential principles of conduct. The Golden Rule; remorse 197

DESIRES.

119. The Desires .199

PAGE APPLICATIONS.

120. Self-Activity. The Principle of Novelty (94, 95) . . 200

121. The Physical Feelings in Relation to Education (98) 201

122. The Principles of the Emotions Applied to Education

(99). Some emotions to be educated, others repressed. Signs of wrong emotion; listless pupils; habit; temperaments .... 201

123. Education of the Personal Emotions (101, 102). Approbation, Self-esteem; Pride; Censure. Hope; Fear . . . 202

124. Sympathy. Rivalry (103. 104). Effect of liarshness, of sympathy, of love. Special means of cultivating sympathy. Rivalry; Prizes; Anger 203

125. Desire for Knowledge (105-108) 204

126. Means of Cultivating the .Esthetic Emotions (115). Neatness, care, etc. Poetry, literature, art, nature 205

127. Education of the Moral Feelings (117). Means as given by Sully. Authority. Sympathy, Love, and Respect. Companions and surroundings. Moral instruction. Reaction of wrong-doing 205

WILLING.

128. Nature of Will ; Elements. Definition of Will. Terms representing elements of Will. Illustration; relation between Knowing, Steeling, and Willing. Elements of Will and their relation to each other 209

129. Desire as Motive. Desire based upon the fact that emotions are agreeable or disagreeable. Representation the basis of Desire. Conflict of desires; Deliberation, choice, postponement of execution. Obligation as opposed to selfish Desire 210

130. Non- Voluntary Movements . .« 212

131. Development of Will (136, 137, 138, 139). Through spontaneous movement and accidental association. Through Imitation. Through Authority. Through free choice of motives. Summary.' 213

132. Will and Habit (137, 138). Influence of will in forming bodily habit and reaction of bodily habit on will; importance of Order and Regularity. Influence of an atmosphere of Duty, Justice, and Sympathy. All acts of will tend to become habitual 214

133. Self-Control. Character. Influence 215

134. Perseverance. Firmness 217

135. Freedom of Will. General View. Arguments for and against 218

APPLICATIOIfS.

136. Activity of Children (131). Activity; restraint . . .219

137. Example (131, 132). Effect of a healthful or unhealthful atmosphere; character fortified by good habit; moral ideas may be implanted early. Example of teacher; sentiment of the school; deception on the part of a teacher 220

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138. Authority (131, 132). Why authority must be used; indulgence. Chiding; prompt obedience; consistency. Certainty of punishment; according to the offense; "spoilt" children; motive and result of persistence to be considered. Excessive use of authority 220

139. Motives (131). Will to be invited by motives; some motives mentioned. Praise and blame; blame in private. Unwise sympathy. Picturing results. The child with his faults and undeveloped powers placed in the hands of the teacher; work of the teacher 223

140. Self-Oontrol * . 224

Psychical Activities Classified 236