Hand made furniture and how to make it ...

Front matter

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HANDMADE FURNITURE

Chapter I. TOOLS

Kight here and now we want to say. keep your tools sharp. Many beginners are discouraged with the residt of their Avork when the fault is entirely with the dullness of their tools. A dull tool cannot do good work no matter how skillful the workman may be. Therefore, we say again, keep all tools sharp all the time. With this in mind, let us see what tools are necessary for our purpose and how to sharpen, use and care for them.

THE SAW.

The saw comes first in use and perhaps in importance. There are several kinds, but you will need only one 24-inch rip saw, about 7 tooth (to an inch) for sawing with the grain; one 20-inch cross-cut saw, 10 tooth, for sawing across the grain; one 12-ineh back saw. 12 tooth, for sawing a perfectly straight, narrow smooth cut (kerf) ; one 12-inch compass saw, 8 tooth, for sawing curves.

These saws are sharpened when you buy them and we do not advise you to attempt to file your saws until you have learned by practice how to do it properly. Have them sharpened by an expert, for while it is very simple it requires skill, acquired only from experience. Do not neglect it, however. A dull saw leaves a ragged edge and take double effort.

If you desire to file your saws get an old one to practice on. It is not a difficult thing to learn, and while opinions differ as to just how the work should be done there are a few essentials which must be observed. The following is the result of long experience and careful study and will give satisfactory results :

You will need to purchase a saw vise (one with rubber in the jaws will prevent noise), also a slim 7-inch taper file for 7 and 8 tooth saws, 5-inch slim taper file for 10 and 12 tooth, and a fairly long, flat mill file for jointing; a saw set of any of the standard patterns, and then proceed as follows: Fasten the saw vise to something steady, clamp the saw in it, teeth up, take the steel square, or other straight edge and hold it with the edge along the teeth of the saw. If the teeth do not all just touch the edge of the square they are not of equal length and require what is called "jointing." To do this take the flat mill file and lay it flat along the points of the teeth, filing as if to dull them until they are all equal in length, which you test with the square as before. The next step is to "sot" the saw. This consists in bending the points of alternate teeth to right and left. This is done with the saw set. Have the salesman show you how to operate whatever kind you buy. The teeth should he bent only just enough to clear, do not set too deep, only the point should be bent, or half the tooth at most; set the tooth toward the side on which the point is; this will be every other tooth one way and alternate ones the othc^ way; set one side first, then the other side. Your saw is now ready for filing. Select the size of file given above for the particular saw, commence at the butt (handh^ end) with the first tooth set away from you and file every alternate tooth. Keep the file level, that is, the handle and point at the same height when the saw is straight up on edge. You will notice that the teeth of your Cross-cut, Back and Compass saws are filed on an angle. This angle is entirely at the discretion of the owner. It is essential, however, that the bevel be filed on the front of the tooth. It Avill give very satisfactory results if you make it about 45 degrees. Keep the angle precisely the same on all the teeth. When you have filed the teeth on one side turn the saw arouiul and file those on the other side. As to the shape of the teeth there is much difference of opinion, but until you have some reason to change keep it the same as whr-n you bought the saw. Now take the saw out of the vise, lay it on a flat board and rub the sides of the teeth wnth the oil stone until they are perfectly even. To file the Rip saw proceed as above, except file straight across, not at an angle. File e\cfy tooth exactly the same size and shape and your saw will i-nn true and easy.

THE USE OF THE SAW.

The use of the saw is constant and important. Saw true always, whether the results make any difference or not. In this Avay you will train your eye and hand. Do not saw without a mark. Use a hard pencil so as to make a narrow line. In all cases when joining mark with a knife or markins awl. Remember that nearly always the sa\ved edge will have to be smoothed with the plane, and allow for this in such cases. Start your saw by a few short strokes, as it is likely to "jump" if you use too long a stroke before the cut is started. As soon as it is started use a full stroke. Do not saw in little jerks, but be careful not to pnll the saw all the way out of the cut. as this will mar your work and may break the saw. Your Rip saw and your Cross-cut saw should be held at an angle of aI)out 45 degrees. With the Compass saw. you will generally have to hold it straight through the board in order to foUow the curve. The Back saw is used tiat down on the work, though you may raise or lower the butt a little in starting. It will take practice to learn to saw "square," that is. so the cut is at right angles with the surface of the plank. Most beginners are inclined to tip the butt of the saw away from them as the cut gets nearer to them. Be careful about this. It is necessary to bring the butt in as the cut gets nearer. Of course, this does not apply to the Back saw, as that cuts straight down. In this case be sure to start true to your mai'k and hold the saw exactly at right angles to the surface of your work so as to cut scjuare.

A sEAV properly set and filed does not require grease to make it run smoothly but should be wiped off after using with an oily cloth to prevent rust.

THE PLANE.

The plane may be of wood or iron or a combination of the two. We recommend a No. 8 Bailey iron i)lane (block) for smoothing; a No. 5 Bailey iron plane (jack) for heavier cutting and jointing; a wooden plow 1-4 inch; a wooden plow 1-2 inch ; a wooden rabbet plane 1-4 to 7-8 inch. If you care to spend the money a wood and iron jointer, not less than 24 inch long is also valuable, but with care you can do this work with your No. 5 jack plane. The dealer will also show you Stanley Nos. 45 and 55 planes. These are expensive, but very convenient, as they will take the place of the rabbet and plow, and will also cut mouldings, reeding, etc. Have the dealer show you how to take apart and put together whatever jjlanes you buy.

TO SHARPEN PLANES.

To sharpen planes use the oil stone, and oil that will not gum. The jack and jointer have a cap iron on the blade; remove this and rub the bevelled side of the blade on the stone with either a spiral or figure eight motion. Some workmen hold the bevel flat on the stone, others prefer to raise the blade onto the edge a little so as to make a second bevel just at the sharp edge. This gives a stronger cutting edge. We prefer the latter method. Either way will turn up a feather edge on the other side, and to remove this turn the blade over on the flat or long side and rub it perfectly flat on the stone. Repeat the process until the edge is yovy sharp mikI perfectly smooth. Do not scratch yonr stone with tlie corner of the blade. Put your plane together again Ivceping the cap iron 1-32 to 1-16 of an inch back fi'oni the cutting edge.

TO USE THE PLANE.

To use the plane sight along the ])ottoni and set the blade so it just shows. If you want to cut deeper you can set it deeper after trying it. Stand back of your plane, rather than over it, so you push it away from you instead of across in front of you. In this way you will cut truer and with less effort. Avoid a rocking motion. Hold the heel firmly down Avith the right hand and the front with the left hand. At the beginning of the stroke hold the front down squarely and at the end of the stroke ease up on the front and hold the heel down. When the plane runs off the end of the work at the end of the stroke, as .you reach the end lift the front so that it does not drop over the end and make it low. Always plane square, whether it makes any difference or not, for the sake of habit.

CHISELS.

Chisels are of several kinds and lengths. For our use we prefer as most convenient one eaeii 1-8, 1-4 and 1-2 inch butt chisels (short blade). You will have little or no use for anything Avider than 1-2 inch.

TO SHARPEN CHISELS.

To shar|)cn chisels pi'oceed as with the plane )>la(le. exe(q)t hokl 1he bevel flat on the stone. Do not rai>;e on th(> edge at all. as this should be thin and very keen.

TO USE THE CHISEL.

To use Ihe chisel keep the flat side towards th(! mark. For chisel work always mark with a knife. Always leave a nuirgin next the line until the finishing cuts. If you cut right to the line in the beginning you are likely to mar the edge of your cut. and also in soft wood the bevel of the chisel forces it a little towards the flat side. When cutting across the grain hold Ihe chisel very flat on the work or it will "dig in."

THE MARKING GAUGE.

The marking gauge is made in several patterns. The simplest will do. In its use you need little instruction. Always tip it a litth^ in the dii-cction you are moving it. If lu:>ld straight up it will try to follow the grain. Hold the guide Hrnily <ind Hat against the Avork.

THE SCREW DRIVER.

The screw driver should be of the very best. For our work we recommend one each 1-8 and 1-4 inch, fairly long.

Always bore holes for screws. The hole should be about two-thirds the diameter of the screw. Put a little soap on the screw and it will drive easier and be less likely to split your work. When it is nearly all the way in and begins to go Ii;irder loosen the screw driver after each turn by a little back twist and it will be less likely to slip out or mar the screw head.

THE BIT BRACE.

The bit brace should be of the ratchet pattern and rather small. Oil the working parts occasionally.

BITS.

Hits are of various patterns. For our work get one each :U\2. 1-8 and ^-16 inch gimlet bits; one each 1-4, 3-8, 1-2, 5-S, 3-4 and 1 inch auger bits and one counter sink.

The gimlet bits you will use principally for screw holes. Be careful not to bend them. The auger bits are for larger holes. When using them it is a good plan, if you intend to bore all the way through, to stop as soon as the worm is through and bore in from the other side. You are less likely in this way to raise the grain around the hole.

TO SHARPEN BITS.

To shar])en bits use a slip stone (a thin oil stone). Rub the sharjK^ned edges on the inside keeping the angle the same as when new.

THE NAIL SET.

The nail set is a small steel punch, hollowed a little on the end. It is for sinking nail heads below the surface of the work. Always incline the nail set in the same direction as the nail so it will not slip off and mar your work.

THE HAMMER.

The hammer should be fairly light. Get one ball pein (round face) claw hammer, rather small; one riveting hammer (small). Use the claw hammer for all ordinary work and the I'ivctiiiu liammer for small hi'ads and welding. Always 1)()1(I a haminm' by the end of the handle. It is balanced to be lichl so. ^lake the stroke from the elbow ratlier than the wrist. Never drive a nail with one or two single blows. It holds better when driven in several blows.

OIL STONES.

Oil stones ai'e made of composition and of natnral st(^ne. The former is perhaps the l)etter of the tM^o. Clean otf occasionally with kerosene to remove the steel and dried oil. Be carefnl not to seratcli it. To trne an oil stone when hollowed down in the middle fasten a piece of No. 1 sandpaper on a flat board, moisten it slightly and rub the face of tlie stone on it until true.

THE MALLET.

The m;dlet is for driving your chisel. Never use it on metal. Use the same stroke as with the hammer and always liold by the end of the handle.

THE TRY SQUARE.

The try square is extremely important. Have the dealer test it in a steel square before you buy it. It is for marking at right angles and for testing work. In use be sure to hold the thick end snugly against the work that is squared.

THE STEEL SQUARE.

The steel square is for larger work than the try square. It also has many uses which 3'ou will not require of it.

THE SLIDING T BEVEL.

The sliding T bevel is much like the try S(|uare except tliat it can be set at any angle and clamped with a thumb screw. You Avill use it for mitring, etc.

THE DIVIDERS.

The dividers are for marking circles or arcs and for divid ing a given space into ecpial parts. Be careful not to make deep holes with them. Just enough to show is sufficient. Do not bend the points.

TWO-FOOT RULE.

Two-foot rule sliould be divided to sixteentlis at least. Be careful not to mar it or your accuracy will suffer m consequence.

Chapter II. WOOD WORKING AND JOINING

In 5'our Avork-room you will need several appliances which you can either bu}', have made or nial<e yourself. Among these are two saw horses; a work bench with stop and vise; a tool chest or closet ; a mitre box and a l)ench hook. These may be more or less elaborate. We give lielow the easiest and simplest that will do. You can improve on them if you desire.

THE SAW HORSE.

The saw horse is merely a straight bar with four legs on which to rest material while working it. You will Avant two. To make a saw horse get two pieces of dry fir or pine 2 in. X 4 in. by 12 ft. long sts common lumber will do so long as it has no knots large enough to weaken it. The s4s means sized on four sides and is the term used by the mills for planing off the saw marks.

Using your try square, mark across one piece as near the end as the wood is sound, with your cross-cut saw cut off the end square at this mark. With your rule measure oft' four legs, each 24 inches long, and one piece 3 feet long for the rail, mark and saw as before. The legs must be bevelled at the tops just like the bevels on your chisels. This will make them spread properly at the bottom. To cut this bevel lean one of tlie legs against the wall with the fiat .side to the wall and the bottom end about 9 inches out from the base board. Now ]dace your rule, folded up, ■\^ ith its edge against the Avail and the flat side against the upper end of tVe leg and Avith your pencil mark the side of the leg along the rule. T>e careful to cut square. Bevel one end of each leg. Lay your rail on the floor on its flat side, set the bevel of the leg against it about 3 inches from the end, Avith the top of the leg even with the top of the rail. Drive in one nail and Avith your steel square see that the leg is at right angles Avith the rail, then put in enough more nails to make it solid. Do likewise on other end, then turn over and put the other tAvo legs on. Stand the horse up on its legs, if it rocks a little put a small wedge under the short leg and with your rule folded, its edge on the floor and flat side against the edge of the leg, mark along the rule. With your try square mark across the flat side of the leg from this line and saAV the leg off here on the angle given by the tAvo lines. If this is done carefully on all four legs your horse will set firmly on the floor.

WORK BENCH.

To nuilve a simple wofk l)eneli you will requii'c one [nvL-v 2 ill. X 12 ill. x 12 f1. loiiy- s4s ; one piece 1 in. x 12 in. X 16 ft. s4s; one piece 2 in. x 4 in. x 10 ft. s4s; one piece 2 in. x 6 in. x 5 ft. s4s. Common lumber will do if knots are not too large. You will also need a 1-inch bench screw. Saw the 2 in. x 12 in. into two pieces for the top. Saw the 2 in. x 4 in. into four pieces each 30 inches long for legs. From the 1 in. x 12 in. saw off two pieces each 22 inches long and nail a leg firmly on each end of both of them, with the 2- inch side of the leg next the board and keeping the top of the leg even with the top edge of the board, and the ends of the board even with the outside of the leg. Saw the remainder

1 in. X 12 in. into two pieces 5 1-2 feet long and nail the ends to the fiat side of the legs with the tops even with the top of the leg and the ends even with the outside of the short board previously' nailed on the legs. This will make the frame of your bench. Now stand it up and lay the top on it so that the top projects about 3 inches beyond the frame at each end and is flush Avith it in front. Nail the front top piece on first, being careful to get the frame square at the corners, then holding the back piece firmly against it nail that also. Set your nail heads below the surface Avith the nail set. Now stand the

2 in. X 6 in. on the floor against the bench and mark it just the height on the top of the bench. Saw it square across at this mark for the inside jaw of your vise. Cut the outside jaw

3 inches shorter than this so it will not touch the fioor. About C) inches below the top of both jaws, and exactly in the center, bore an inch hole for the bench screw. Most bench screws have a bulge on the inner face of the plate and you will probably liave to cut around the hole on the outside jaw as if for a l)ig screw head so this plate will set down flat. Now fasten the inside jaw to the bench near the left-hand end, one end on the floor and the other flush with the top of the bench. Putting your 1-inch bit through the hole in the jaw bore through the apron, next unscrew the threaded collar from the bench screw and set it in the center of a piece of wood 2 in. X 4 in. x 8 in. To do this bore a hole through the 2 in. x

4 in. and ream it out with your knife large enough to take the collar, or else take it to a carpenter shop and have it bored with a larger bit. Now, having fastened the bench screw to the outside jaw, put it through the inside jaw and apron and then screw on the 2 in. x 4 in. with the collar in it. Nail the 2 in. X 4 in. to the inside of the apron. There only remains the slide in the bottom of the vise. Three iuche.s above the bottom end. in the center of the outside jaw, bore an inch hole throiiirh both jaws. Get a piece of hard wood (broijmstiek) about IS inches long- that will run easilj' through this hole. Put it through the hole till the end is flush with the outside of the outside jaw. Then wedge it tight, or nail it from the side so that it will run easily through the inside jaw, but hold the outside one. Bore 1-4 inch holes through this slide from side to side about 1 inch apart. Cut the head off a 20d nail and use this as a pin to hold the bottom of the jaws as wide (»pen when in use as the thickness of the material you have in the vise, or as nearly so as the holes in the slide will permit.

BENCH STOP.

The bench stop is used to brace your work against Avhen planing, etc. You can buy an adjustable iron one or make a simple one as follows: Six inches from t'^e left-hand end of the bench, and about 4 inches from the front, bore a hole straight down through the top with a bit the size of your broom-stick, before mentioned. Into this drive the broom-stick tight and Avith the saw cut it off about 1-2 inch above the top of the bench. This will answer temporarily.

You now have your bench and saw horses and can begin work. They may appear a little crude but Avill answer every purpose and you can buy or build finer ones Avhen you have learned to use the tools easily.

AVe would advise postponing the tool chest until you have had some experience in the use of tools.

The mitre box is described later in your Avork and you will not need it for the present.

Chapter III. SQUARING AND JOINTING

For this and other exercises we recommend 2 in. x 4 in. kiln dried No. 1 pine s4s. This is less than 2 in. x 4 in., as these are the dimensions in the rough and some surface is taken off in dressing it. In speaking of lumber we give dimensions in the rough, but in speaking of parts of a piece of work actual measurements are always given.

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Exercise No. I.

Saw off a piece of 2 in. x 4 in. 18 1-4 inches long. Tlic object of this exercise is to learn to square this block, th;it is, make every surface perfectly fiat and straight and exactly at right angles to the adjoining surfaces. This operation is nc-cessary on almost every piece of work you will do and its accuracy is of the utmost importance. Place your piece on the beneli with one of the wide sides up and the end against the bench stop. Set your jack plane to cut a very thin shaving. Plane the upper surface carefully, testing it from time to time with the side of your plane to see that it is perfectly straij^ht. This is called jointing. It must also be flat. Test this wifli the side of your plane laid across it and in all directions. Next turn it up on edge and joint and square m tlie same maimer. To test the angle use the try square with the l)road arm against the face of the side you have already s(|uare(l. Plane the other two sides in like manner until ail fop.i- sides are absolutely square with adjoining sides and perfeclly siraight from end to end. IMeasure off 1-8 in. from one end and mark witli try scpiare and knife across the top. Turn it up and mark from this line down the side next you. With the back saw cut s(|nare to these marks. Now measure

18 in. from this and cut the other end off square in the same manner. Put the piece in the vise end up and projecting about an inch above the vise and with your smoothing plane plane the ends true, testing from all four sides with the try square. It is well in this operation to put a piece of waste material back of your work in the vise, with its upper edge even with the upper edge of your work. This will prevent chipping off the further edge as you plane across it. Square up other end in like manner. You will probably have to try some little time before you can get this exercise perfectly, but persist. Though simple it is perhaps as important as anv you will have and you will be called upon to repeat this process constantly. Do not slight it. therefore, and when yon can square a block perfectly you have made a great stride forward.

HALF TENON AND HALVING.

Saw off a piece of 2 in. x 4 in. 12 inches long. Square it up as in Exercise I. Select the wide side with the best grain, etc., for your working side and mark it "0." ^Measure otf 3 1-2 in. from the left-hand end as it lies on the bench before you and Avith your knife and try square mark across the

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Exercise No. II.

working face (a-a). Turn up on edge and mark across from this line (b-b). Turn on other edge and do the same. Next measure 3 in. farther from the end and mark across the working face and down the two edges in the same manner (c-c-c). Then 3 1-2 inches farther from the end mark across face and edges as before (d-d-d). Now take your marking gauge and set it 7-8 in. deep. Turn work on its edge, with the workins face to your right and with the gauge make a line along the edge from (e-e-e), that is, a line 7-8 of an inch below the working face and parallel with it. Do likewise between {Q^ and

(d) and (f-f). Turn the work over and mark the other side in the same way and also carry your gauge mark across the end (g-g). Place the work on the bench working face uj) with the marked end to the right. With your back saw cut down at (b) to the gauge mark (e), being careful that your saw cuts just to the mark both on top and down the edge. Saw in the same way at (c) to (f) and (d) to (f). being carefnl in all cases that your saw cuts only to the middle of your mark, the cut being in the wood to be removed, which in our case is between (b) and the end and (c) and (d). Do not mar corners in starting your saw. Place the work in the vise with the gauge mark just above the jaws. With your widest chisel cut out the parts to be removed, cutting across the grain, flat side of the chisel down. Do not try to take out too much at a time. Do not cut all the way across as the wood is likelv to chip off the far side below your gauge line, so cut only half way across, then turn the piece around and cut from the other side. When you reach the bottom (the gauge line) be very enrefnl to hold the chisel flat, that is, straight across, or you will not have a flat, even bottom. Next turn the work up on end in the vise and with your rip saw cut down the gange line across the end (g-g) and down the edge (e-e). Repeat this exercise until you can get it absolutely accurate. All surfaces should be "square" and smooth. These operations are constantly necessary and must be accurate or your joints will show unsightly cracks. While, on the other lumd. when you have mastered this exercise, you have accomplished a great deal, as you will appreciate a little later.

HALVED JOINT.

Ro far we have not required our matei"i;i] to be of any l);ii'1icular dimensions when finished. W^e shoidd now be able 1() scjuare up to given dimensions, which is. of course, necessary in most cases. It is in this exercise. 'J'herefore. remember to get you I- iiialerial out a trifle larger than tlu^ dimensions i:i\('n foi- Ihc finished Avork in order to leave room for squaring. The purpose of this exercise is to join two pieces of e(|ua] tliekncs-; which cross each other at right angles, and luive them (hish lop and bottom; the pieces to be of the exact diini'nsioiis L;i\t'n. titled closely on l)oth sides, each piece ('.\;i('t]y in the eenler of the other, both sides to be perfectly smooth and even when finished and the ends planed square. To (h) this get out two [ieces which square iqi as in Ex. I to 3 1-2 iti. wide. 1 3-4 in. thick and 12 in. long eaeli. Choose ana iiiifk- working- fnce of each. Find llie eentei' {(] in. from each end). Measure 15-8 in. each way from the center and mark across the working face of one piece and bottom of the other piece (a-a) and (a-a). Now set your marking gauge to halt