Systems of education: a history and criticism of the principles, methods, organization, and moral discipline advocated by eminent educationists

Preface

TO

FOURTEENTH EDITION.

The Notes to the present Edition have been revised throughout, and a few passages unnoticed in former editions have been explained. The references to Keightley's Mythology have been replaced by short notes, -which will be found to contain what is necessary for the understanding of the text. Where more information is required, the Classical Dictionary may be consulted.

PREFACE.

In the year 1852, the Syllabus for Students in Training Colleges, issued by the Committee of Council on Education, required that they should be instructed in the Systemfj of Education that had been in use in this country. It thus became the Author's duty, in that and following years, to explore the field, and to give lectures in the course thus opened out to hira. Gradually his course shaped itself into the form in which it is presented in this volume. At the request of the Bishop of Tasmania, then Principal of the Training Colleges, Cheltenham, some of these lectures appeared at intervals in the Papers for the Schoolmaster. The whole course is now oflFered in a more permanent form, at the request of many of the Author's former pupils. But another consideration has had weight. School Education has to become a Science. One means to this end is to gather and examine what has been done by those who have been engaged therein, and whose position or success has given them a right to be heard. Nor these alone. Others have been employed, if not in it, yet about it. School education, at its present standpoint, is the result of many agencies.

IV PREFACE.

individual, social, and national, and these have been very varied, and often antagonistic. It has been a growth, to which the philosopher, the politician, the doctrinaire, and the amateur have contributed, as well as the actual workers in schools. With these — excluding those whose object has been mercenary — it has been a course of efforts, schemes, mistakes, and failures, but sometimes of partial successes, all of which have yielded something to the fabric as it now stands. The Author's hope is that the sketch here feebly attempted may stimulate those just starting in their profession, ever to work with the purpose of ultimately placing their art on a scientific basis.

One word as to the form. In few cases are the words of the educational writers or workers used. Having but a very limited time, not one hour weekly, in which to present the salient points of each system, he found he could better do this, without quotation. But he has never consciously altered or coloured any one's views. In this plan he was confirmed by finding how successfully it had been followed in the Schoolmaster , published by the Society for the Difi'usion of Useful Knowledge ; to which book and to its other publications, the writer gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness.

February 28, 1876.

CHAPTER I. Grammar Schools

Pioneers — English taught in schools — John Comewaile — Increase of schools — Influence of Chaucer — Eevival of learning — Colet — "Wolsey's instructions to masters — First English grammar.

Egger Ascham — His education — Origin of the Schoolmaster — Discipline in relation to learning — Marks of a good scholar — Chiding — Correction of mistakes — Corporal punishment — Quick and hard wits — Competent teachers — Learning to be intelligent — Thoroughness — Examples hefore rales — Nothing to unlearn.

CoMENiTJS — Monitorial principle — Intuitive faculties — Pictorial teaching — Picturing-out.

John Milton — Spirit of the educator — Influence on the nation's life — No formal routine — Pestalozzian principle anticipated — Baconian method. — Course of study — Motives to be employed.

John Locke — Incidents in life — Physical education — Moral culture — Its Place in a system of education — Its natare — Necessity of knowing childhood— Difierence in children — • Early impressions — M eans of moral training — Authority — Shame — Opposed to corporal punishment — Obstinacy— Rewards — Natural consequences — Skilful teaching — Learning made pleasant — Saturday Review quoted — Pleasant books — ■ Method of penmanship —Grammar — Composition — French.

ViCESiMus Knox — Opposed to Locke — Advantages of classical culture — Bias of scholar — Easy methods suspicious — Culture of memory — Early reading — Latin basis of school discipline — Greek and French — English composition— Geography. ... .Pp. 1—47

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II. The Common School

Edoeworths — Influence of their writings — Kindergarten anti. cipated — ^Early learning — Objections to alphabetic teach, ing — Phonic method suggested — Spelling should follow reading — Arithmetic by objects — Power of attention — Short lessons — When to end teaching — Connection in teaching — Difficulty of language — Personal motive — Selection of books — History, how taught — Place of poetry — Moral discipline — Natural consequences — Submission — Commands and prohibitions.

Pestalozzi — Incidents in life — Boobs on education — Become a schoolmaster — Qualification — Experiments and failures — Leading principles — Opposed to common practices — Socratic development — Was the old method utterly bad ? — Ideas before words— Child an active agent — Object lessons — Simple to complex — Graduation of exercises— Harmonious development — Absurdities in his practices — Moral and religious training — How develop religious feeling.

CHAPTER III. Infants' Schools

Oberlin — School at Lanark — School at Westminster.

WiLDERSPiN — The gaudy cap and its lesson — Qualifications for his work — His enthusiasm — His enterprise — Principles — Follow nature — Physical culture — Characteristics of childhood — Moral education — Moral truths and principles — Moral constitution — Playground — Cultivation of intelligence — The Senses — How to think rather than what — • Object lessons — Lessons in number — Ball frame — Pictures.

Mayos — Expounders of Pestalozzianism — Pestalozzian principles — Education should be religious — Should be moral — Should be organic — Action parent of power — Liberty — Harmonious development — Progressive.

Home and Colonial School Society — Primary object in infant culture — Infants' schools are too often hot- beds — Aim of this Society — Huge gallery banished — Sectional

CONTENTS. "^^

division of school-Development and intuition-Hand head and heart-Eeligious training-Its m6de-¥irst ideas of God— Graduated instruction— Scripture prints— Moral culture-Based on religious truth-Springs of action- Systematic culture of the feelings-Conscience-Trammg rather than teaching-Power of example-School discip- Hne-Authority-Punishments-Treatment of obstinate children-Eewards and praise-Cultivation of mtelhgence —The senses— Object lessons— Lessons on animais— Colour and form— Size and weight— Number. KiNDEHGAKTEN SYSTEM-Frobel-Observcs _ chndren-Their characteristics - Gifts - Forms - Inventions- Activity- Taste— Number— Reading. . . -PP- 7t)— Ibi

CHAPTER IV. The Elementary School

Db. Andrew BELL-Origin of monitorial system-Province of the school-Religion and morality-Relation to future callings-Attention and exertion-Means of securing- Home exercises-Principles and methods- Something to do —Definite and thorough work— Repetition— Reading— Writing— Organization of school— Subordinate officers- Large classes— Arrangements of room-School keeping— Supervision-Paidometer-Discipline-Prevention better than cure— Personal improvement— Emulation— Place-taking— Treatment of offences— Punishment- objections to corporal punishment. ^ _

Joseph Lancaster— Devotedness to education-Moral training based on religious instruction— Periods of school life- Graduation of lessons-Reading-Arithmetic-Organization distinct classes for arithmetic— classes and drafts— Teaching staff— DiscipUne— Influence of master— PubHc opinion in school— Fellenberg's practice— Offices of trust- Training of the will — Emotions of self-love of distinction—Class emulation. iN'riiLLECTUAL SYSTEM-Culture of intelligence- Knowledge of chHd mind-No royal road to learning- QuaHfications of

VUl CONTENTS.

teachers— Disciplined mind— Apt to teach- Methods— Interrogation— Explanation — Exposition of reading lesson.

StoVs Tkaining System — Origin and progress — Infant school — David Caughie — Establishment of first normal college training and teaching — Function of the school — Eeligious and moral training— Bible lessons — Telling not training — Currie on doing— Locke on training— Action teaches— Condition of moral training — Knowledge of aptitudes — Development of tastes — Freedom from restraint — Fear prevents confidence — Temptations not removed — Uncovered school room— Moral review — Sympathy of numbers — Public opinion — Long on school opinion — Reid on school boy's infiuence — Currie on sympathy of numbers — Intellectual culture — Leading principle — Master to teach — Necessity of learning — Nothing told that can be discovered — Understanding, then memory — Not reasons for everything — Logical faculty — Outlines first — Picturing out — Words — Scenes — Bible lessons — Training out — Mistakes and absurdities — Induction — Collective lessons.

Pp. 162—262 CHAPTER V.

Amateurs and Helpers.

Present interest in education— Brougham's efforts — Central Society.

Thomas "Wyse — Knowledge of mind — Education must be religious that it may be moral — How teach the Bible— Intelligent training — The senses first — All the faculties — Method should be eclectic.

Horace Grant — Interest in education — Special qualifications — Inductive labour — Principles — Saturday Review on arithmetic.

Education Department — Shuttleworth — Principles of method — Pound's Battersea college — Professor Moseley — Religious training — Moral discipline — Training of teachers — Oral lessons — Tripartite organization — Grade schools — Tremenheere — Oral lessons — Education of the whole natiu-e — Knowledge of mind — Poetry— Reading lesson. . Pp. 263—304

8Y8TEM8 OF EDUCATION.

CHAPTER I. Grammar Schools

Section J. — Fioneers.

The reign of Edward III. witnessed, after a struggle of three centuries, the triumph of English in the schools, as well as in social life and the courts of law. Schools had been chiefly those connected with cathedrals and monasteries, some of the latter class having been founded before the Conquest. These were intended chiefly for the training of ecclesiastics. But there were other than these, found in towns and Tillages, which were open to the laity. Of these were those held probably in the chamber over the porch of the church, parvise. The serjeant in the Canterbury Tales had been at parvise. In these schools Latin and French were taught, and were the medium through which other things were acquired. John Cornewaile appears to have been the first to break through custom and prejudice, by introducing into the school the reading of the mother tongue. It spread, ?o that in the course of a generation "In all the grammai schools of England children learneth French and construeth and learneth in English." The Visions and Creed of Piers Ploughman (Langlande), the tracts and Bible of Wycliffe, and the burst of song in Chaucer came to stimulate and reward this movement. Other schools under private persons, that is, not connected with the religious houses sprang up, due greatly to Wycliffe and those who abetted him. The movement was countenanced by Wykeham, to whom it has been attributed, that his school at Winchester was designed to rescue the early training of youth from the hands of the monks. The increase of these schools seems to have alarmed the ecclesiastical bodiea. They opposing Lollardry, obtained a law making it illegal to send children for tuition to private persons. But the impetus had been given, and though for a century after Chaucer no great English writer appeared, yet it is evident that the learning of English spread more and more, until literature was no longer the possession of a class, but had begun to be the heritage of the people. This is shown by the literature in demand ; compendiums of the scientific and historic knowledge of the day ; the common-place dramas, mysteries, and poems, and the rhyming chronicles. It is also shown by the extent of the demand. It was beyond precedent, so that few occupations were so thriving as the scriveners. It is also shown in the demand of some of the clergy of London in 1477, for leave to open schools in their respective churches. But the strongest proof of all is in the success that attended William Caxton, and his noble efforts, by translation and printing, to meet the ever increasing demand.

The revival of learning in Florence, due greatly to

PIONEEKS. 6

the Greek scholars, who had fled there, on the taking of Constantinople by the Turks ; and due also to the influence of the Medici ; and the spread of this revival in Europe was another element in the upward movement. Grocyn, Linacre, and somewhat later Colet, having studied in Florence, returned to kindle the fire in Oxford, and to adopt means to promote the new learning.

The reformation, in one of its phases a collateral result of the revival of learning, brought into the homes of the people the light of sacred truth, with its necessary result, intellectual awakening ; and placed within their reach the Bible in English.

It was a necessary consequence of the revival of learning that schools and colleges increased. During the latter years of Henry VIII. more grammar schools were founded than during the three preceding centuries. In the reign of Edward and Elizabeth the good work went on, until a system of schools was established for the middle-classes, which bore noble fruit in the next generations. It was natural that this revival and progress should draw attention to school methods and practices, which should issue in efforts for their improvement. Dean Colet led the way in both movements, by the establishment of his school at St. Paul's, placing it under the charge of Lilly, and by reforming the matter of study and the mode of instruction. Fifteen years later, Wolsey wrote to the masters of the school he had founded at Ipswich a letter of instruction as to the methods to be pursued, gathered probably from the writings of Erasmus, and the practice on the Continent. The main points of this letter, separatee^ from the detail of daily work in each class are, to be careful in first teaching, to suit the matter to the capacity, not to force to learning by blows or harsh threats, to make learning a game rather than a task, to explain, illustrate and arrange, to commend, and to exact correctness in speech at play as well as in school.

But this revival was not confined to classical learning. In the reign of Elizabeth, there burst into leaf, the tree of English literature, with a vigour, a life, and a growth, which have never since departed from it. With this there came the demand for such culture in schools, as would put this literature into the hands of England's children. The first attempt was the humble unpretentious English Grammar, of the head master of St. Paul's school, Alexamier Gill.

Section II. — Roger Ascham

Eoger Ascham may be considered the father of school method. For though his *'Scholemaster " deals necessarily with classical learning, yet it contains jDrinciples which are applicable to all school subjects. His book was not that of an amateur, but of one who had, for the age, fair experience and success in the work of tuition. Born in 1515, he entered, at the age of fifteen, St. John's College, Cambridge, just when the Greek revival under Cheke was drawing many to that University. Ascham's progress was rapid, and the bent of his mind was shown by his teaching, while yet a boy, other boys the Greek he had so quickly acquired, with the design too of facilitating his own

ROGER ASCHAM. 5

acquisition and use of it. He became early distinguished as a scholar, obtained his bachelor's degree at the age of nineteen, and was elected a Fellow of his College a month later. He employed himself as tutor and lecturer, and many of his scholars afterwards rose to great distinction. Ascham was not only proficient in classical learning, he had skill in music, and was one of the few that excelled in penmanship. This influenced his fortunes. About 1544, he was appointed by Henry VIII. to teach penmanship to Edward and Elizabeth, and somewhat later he became Greek tutor to that princess. Subsequently he was Latin secretary to Edward VI., an office which was continued to him by the good offices of Gardiner under Mary, and which he retained under Elizabeth. With this queen he also read classics daily, until his death in 1568.

The origin of Ascham's book gives the key to its matter. In 1563, Sir William Cecil tells in Ascham's presence of boys that had run away from Eton for fear of a beating. He also expressed an opinion that masters often punish nature rather than the fault of the scholar ; and drove from learning those they had in charge. This gave rise to a discussion, whether learning was better promoted by love alluring, or beating driving to it. Ascham expressed himself against punishments, and in favour of methods that would render punishment unnecessary. His work is in two books. Book I. — " Teaching the bringing up of Youth." Book 11. — "The ready way to the Latin tongue. The former book, to which we confine ourselves, treats of discipline and method.

Ascham is at pains to distinguish between the discipline whicli is to promote progress in learning witli tlie love of it, and the discipline which has to form the manners, root out vice, and promote growth in virtue. In this latter sphere, he thinks there may be reasonable severity, but he thinks that such discipline does not belong to the schoolmaster. This opinion has not altogether died out, there being schools now, where masters think their only responsibility rests in their pupils' progress in learning. Still, even in Ascham's day, there were those who held that the school had a higher function in education. " In such places," he urges, " the discipline to promote learning should not be of the same kind as that which has to form the character and reform the manners." Eeferring to the discipline amongst the Ancients he observes: — "The schoolmaster taught him learning with all gentleness ; the governor corrected his manners with much sharpness, the father held the stern of his whole obedience. And so he that used to teach did not commonly use to beat, but remitted that over to another man's charge. But what shall we say, wlien now in our days the schoolmaster is used both for preceptor in learning, and pcedagogus in manners? Surely, I would he should not confound their offices, but discreetly use the duty of both, so that neither ill touches should be left unpunished, nor gentleness in teaching anywise omitted. And he shall well do both, if wisely he do appoint diversity of time, and separate place for either purpose." Here is a very important distinction shadowed forth, involving a very great principle, and indicating a noble practice. Nothing should be done in discipline that will tend to confound moral distinctions in the

ROGER ASCHAM. 7

mind of the young ; or, that will make them think that a false quantity is on the same footing as a lie. This distinction too is important, when weighing arguments on corporal punishment ; for it must be evident that such as may establish the propriety, expediency, or necessity of it in the one case, may be utterly worthless in the other.

Quoting from Plato the marks of a good scholar in the judgment of Socrates, he sets forth these as the objects of discipline. Secure to him a good " memory, quick to receive, sure to keep, and ready to deliver ; a love of learning ; a desire to labour ; a will to take pains ; willingness to be taught by any one ; and not to be ashamed to ask questions."

To attain these objects, " never chide liastilij." Look well to your ground and consider what will be its effect on the pupil. " Hasty chiding dulls the wit and discourages diligence." '* Why are you angry, sirl Indeed I am doing as well as I can," — was a reply that elicited from Arnold, *' I was never so ashamed in my life." " Monish gently.'^ Faults have to be pointed out, but it should be in a way *' that shall make him both willing to amend, and glad to go forward in love and hope of learning." Hence monition should be mixed wibh encouragement. Love is a better spur than fear, gentleness is better than bullying, soft words are better than stinging ones. *' For whatsoever the mind doth learn unwillingly from fear, the same it doth gladly forget without care." In further illustration he compares children learning to ride, and learning their book. " Schoolmasters by fear do beat into them the hatred of learning ; and wise riders, by gentle allurements, do breed up in tliem the love of riding. They find fear and bondage in schools, they feel liberty and freedom in stables." Meeting an obvious objection that riding is a pastime and therefore easy to children, while learning is labour and wearisome, he rejoins, **Beat a child if he dance not well, and cherish him though he learn not well, ye shall have him unwilling to go to dance, and glad to go to his book," for " the mind of a child is like the newest wax, able to receive the best and fairest printing," hence a child's likings or dislikings are due to his educators.

Correction of mistakes or faults should not degrade^ nor discourage, but stimulate. In doing this necessary work, there must not be a frown, nor the fault put down to wilfulness. *' Cicero would have used such a word, or put it in such a place." Here he exhibits knowledge of human nature. An illustration is at hand in the "Daily J^ews" of the autumn of 1872. Its correspondent attended the field manoeuvres of the English army, and a few days later he was performing a similar duty with the German army in the neighbourhood of Berlin. ** If an officer in the former case made a mistake he was soundly rated in the presence of the staff; but ia the case of the German, the General said < Had I been charged with such a movement, I would have conducted it so and so.' Here the self respect of the officer was considered, who, beside, would on a similar occasion try to do the thing as his distinguished general would have done it.'*

Beating should never he employed to promote learning. Generally it breaks rather than bends, mars rather than mends. It tends to associate such disagreeable things

ROGER ASCHAM. 9

with learaing as to make children detest, rather than love it, drive from it, rather than allure to it. It often leads to tyranny. Beaters often allow ill humour at other things to find vent on the pupil. Indulging the practice of inflicting pain for faults not of a moral nature, has a tendency to harden the master, and to Tender him insensible to the claims of justice. It is often unjust. As Cecil said, it more frequently punishes nature than corrects faults ; for the slow, and dull, and heavy get the heating, while the quick and easy getters obtain the praise. Pain is thus inflicted for natural qualities, instead of being reserved for moral offences.

There should he discrimination hetween quick and hard wits. Quick wits are apt to take, unapt to keep, easily got and quickly gone, soon hot and soon cold- They are like sharp-edged tools, which enter easily but do not penetrate to a great depth, because their edges are soon turned. Hence few quick wits are -ever profound ; but exception is to be made here for the excellently gifted. But as a matter of fact, the quick at school seldom turn out well as men ; they live p'bscurely and die unknown. The remedy is a judicious system of repetition which will make their learning thorough. Hard wits are the hope of the school, and ultimately do society and the commonwealth most service. Here is encouragement. Hard wits are those who find it hard to learn, and who fire hard to teach. He compares them to hard woods and hard stones in the hands of the engraver and. sculptor. The tool makes scarcely any impression ; it requires much toil and much skill to trace a line or to chisel a feature, but the wo>'k is lasting. Lapse of time and tlie action of the elements destroy it not. It realizes " I work for eternity." Now your hard wits are just such. Hard to get, hard to lose, sure to keep. He compares them also to tools which enter with difficulty, but penetrate deeply. Here is probably the reason of their slowness, they are not satisfied like the quick with being superficial. They are not like the butterfly, here and there, but like the bee, staying at a flower till it has gathered all it contains.

The principles for conducting instruction found in Ascham are few but pregnant. His first care would be to provide a competent instructor. Eut, alas ! " men look for a cunning man for their horse, but not for their children." They show this in the salaries they give. *'Two hundred crowns to the one, two hundred shillings to the other." They reap accordingly — "tame, well-ordered horses, wild children. They get more pleasure from their horses than comfort from their children."

Ascham requires that the master shall teach as well as the pupil learn, and in order thereto. The pupil should understand. The master is to spare no pains to make him carry away the sense. He requires as a test and as a means that the child shall do by himself what he had before done with his tutor. It is only through teaching that learning is profitable. " Learning without teaching makes lubbers, — always learning, never profiting." He draws a comparison between what children learn from books, and what they obtain by the use of their senses and by experience. The one is practical and valuable, the other stale and

ROGER ASCHAM. 11

profitless. Learning without intelligence is simply, " on the tongue and lip, to be spit out when occasion needeth ; that which is understood ascends to the brain, is assimilated, and becomes fruitful."

Learning must be thorough as well as intelligent. These things satisfy the mind of the pupil and clear his path. *' They give pleasure to children, pleasure excites love, love provokes labour, and labour effects its purpose." Thoroughness requires that there should be order in his work and repetition. *' Let the master read unto him the Epistles of Cicero. First let him teach the child cheerfully and plainly the cause and matter of the letter; then let him construe it into English so oft as the child may easily carry away the understanding of it; lastly, parse it over perfectly. This done thus, let the child by and by both construe and parse it over again, so that it may appear that the child doubteth in nothing that his master taught him before. After this the child must take a paper book, and sitting in some place where no man shall prompt him, by himself, let him translate into English his former lesson. Then, showing it to his master, let the master take from him his Latin book, and pausing an hour at least, then let the child translate his own English into Latin again in another paper book. The master must compare it with Tully's book, and lay them both together."

In order to thoroughness and subsequent progress, there should be cultivation at first only of a small area. He recommends that a good but easy and short book should be selected, and this so completely worked and mastered as to be equally at command with the mother tongue. This advice, necessary then, is tenfold more so now. How wide the area of human research at present ! How vast the domain of knowledge already won ! How persistent the devotee to each special subject, that his shall enter into the curriculum of the school ! How dogmatic the doctrinaire, that the subjects in school shall be many, and that their limits shall not be circumscribed ! And with what results ? Let the disclosures in connection with the Civil Service examinations, and the system of enfeebling cram, give the reply. No ! the hint of Ascham should be the rule in school — " a small area well cultivated." This only will give thorough knowledge, strength of mind, and sound education.

" Heedful mending of faults " is necessary both to intelligence and thoroughness. Correction of mistakes is oftentimes the best instruction. We get a clearer insight. " A child learns more from two faults than from four things rightly hit."

Examples before rules, and rules deduced from examples, are two important principles which are indicated by Ascham. Speaking of Latin, he would have the learner become familiar with the language, and fpr himself discover its syntax, rather than the common practice of giving him the rule and leaving him to apply it. These two invaluable principles are but now bearing fruit in school matters, so persistent is bad method, and so difficult to overcome the inertia that prevents thought. But our author has no sympathy with idleness, nor with any master who adopts what seems the easier method of tasks, instead of one that makes constant demand on his own mental power.

COMENIUS. 13

The practice of a boy "being set to do things at such a time, or in such a way, that he learns many things that he has afterwards to unlearn, comes under animadversion. Thus are often produced faults that no later care can cure. His instance is taken from setting hoys to Latin composition before they had sufficient knowledge and skill in the language. The rule condemns the too frequent practice of giving for correction false syntax, false speech, and false spelling ; and the permitting of practices in learning, and in reading, writing, and arithmetic, which afterwards prove hindrances to progress.