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Preface To New Edition
In this new edition I have endeavoured to make the Outlines of Psychology a more complete introduction to the science. The publication of a work specially designed for the educator (The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology) has enabled me to reduce the sections dealing with the applications of psychology to the technical work of the teacher. At the same time I have endeavoured to retain as much as possible of the practical element of the earlier editions. The order of exposition has been altered so as to bring it into line with my recently published treatise, The Human Mind. A few drawings have been added, which may, I trust, be found useful to the student.
I am greatly indebted to Mr. S. Alexander, of Lincoln College, Oxford, and to Mr. J. Armitage Smith, of the Birkbeck Institute, both of whom have kindly read through proof-sheets of the volume, and suggested valuable emendations.
Hampstead, October, 1892.
CHAPTER I. Scope and Method of Psychology
PAGE
Definition of Psychology I
How we come to know Mind :
(a) Subjective Observation ........ 3
(3) External or Objective Study of Mind ..... 4
Combination of Internal and External Observation ... 5
General Knowledge of Mind ........ 6
Psychological Method :
Synthesis — The Genetic Method ....... 8
Experiment in Psychology ........ 9
The Psychical in its connexion with the Physical .... 9
Mind and its Environment : Social Conditions . . . .10
Relation of Psychology to other Sciences . . . . . .11
Psychology and Practical Science . . . . . . .12
Relation of Psychology to Education . ...... 14
CHAPTER II. The Physical Basis of Mental Life
Connexion of Mind with Body 16
Structure of Nervous System : Nerves and Nerve-Centres . . .17 Function of Nerve-Structures :
(a) Of Nerves 21
(b) Of Nerve-Centres 22
Inhibitory Action of Central Structures ...... 22
Mode of Working of Nervous System ....... 23
The " Seat " or Special Organs of Consciousness 24
VI
OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY.
PAGE
The Brain as Organ of Mind 25
Correlation of Nervous and Psychical Processes . . . . .27
Cerebral and Mental Development 28
Physical Substrate of Individuality : Temperament . . . .29
Practical Bearing of the Correlation of Mind and Brain . . .30
CHAPTER III. Constituents of Mind
Mental Life Divisible into Certain Functions 32
Feeling, Knowing, and Willing 33
Primary Intellectual Functions 34
Constituent Elements of Feeling : Pleasure and Pain . . -35 Fundamental Functions in Willing ...... 36
Mental Functions and Faculties ....... 36
Physiological Concomitants of Mental Function . . . .37
Relation of Feeling, Knowing, and Willing 38
Truths or Laws of Mind 40
Value of Analysis of Mind to the Educator . ..... 41
CHAPTER IV. Primitive Psychical Elements : Sensations, etc
Elements and their Combination 43
(a) Sensations.
Definition of Sensation ......... 43
Presentative and Affective Element in Sensation . . . .44
General or Common Sensation : Organic Sense 45
Specialised Sensibility : Special Senses 46
Distinguishable Aspects or Characters of Sensation . . . -47 (a) Intensity ......■•■•• 47
Relation of Intensity to Strength of Stimulus . . . .48
(3) Quality of Sensation . . . . . . . .49
Physiological Conditions of Quality 50
Extensity : Local Distinctness . . . . . . . 51
Duration : Protensive Magnitude 52
CONTENTS. Vii The Series of Senses : Taste and Smell.
PAGE
Sense of Taste 53
Sense of Touch.
General Nature of Tactual Sense ....... 56
Thermal Sensations .......... 59
Value of Sense of Touch 60
Hearing.
Characteristics of Auditory Sensations ...... 61
(a) Musical Sensations ......... 62
(b) Non-Musical Sensations : Noises ...... 63
Value of Sense of Hearing ......... 64
Sight.
Characteristics of Visual Sense . . . . . . . .65
Colour-Sensations .......... 66
Movement and Muscular Sense.
Definition of Muscular Sense ........ 68
Varieties of Muscular Sensations . . . . . . . .69
(a) Experience without Movement : Sensations of Position . . 70
(6) Experience of Movement ....... 70
(c) Experience of Impeded Movement : Sense of Resistance . 72 Active Sense : Touching, Seeing, etc. ....... 73
(b) Elements of Feeling.
Primitive Affective Phenomena ........ 75
(c) Active Elements : Primitive Movements.
Primitive Conative Phenomena ........ 76
(d) Primitive Complex Arrangements.
Primitive Conjunctions of Elements : Instinctive dispositions . . 76
The Range of Instinct in Man ........ 77
Origin of Instinct : Heredity ........ 78
Study of Primitive Elements and Education 79
CHAPTER V. Mental Elaboration : Attention
Psychical Elaboration 81
Attention as a Factor in Elaboration 81
Grades of Consciousness : the Sub-Conscious 82
Unconscious Psychical Processes 82
General Function of Attention 83 viii OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY.
PAGE
Definition of Attention 84
Positive and Negative Aspect of Attention 85
Nervous Process in Attention ........ 86
Attention as Adjustment : Expectant Attention 88
Fixation and Movement of Attention 90
Analytical and Synthetical Attention : Area of Attention . . -93 Determinants of Attention : Interest ....... 94
Transition to Voluntary Attention ....... 97
Effects of Attention 98
Training of the Attention ......... 99
CHAPTER VI. Process of Elaboration (Continued) : Differentiation and Integration
Factors in Mental Elaboration „ 102
(a) Process of Differentiation ....... 103
Differentiation and Discrimination ...... 105
Law of Change or Relativity 105
(b) Process of Assimilation : Relation of Likeness . . . 106 Relation of Differentiation to Assimilation ..... 109
(c) Process of Association . . . . . . . .110
Retentiveness and Reproduction . . . . . . .110
Physiological Basis of Reproduction ...... 113
Unity of Elaborative Process . . . . . . . .114
Course of Development.
Stages of Intellectual Development 117
Development and Habit ......... 120
Development of Feeling and Willing 121
Mental Development as Biological Process ...... 122
Social Environment and Development 124
Factors in Development ......... 125
The Development and the Training of the Mind .... 125
CHAPTER VII. Perception
Sensation and Perception ......... 128
Intra-organic and Extra-organic Localisation of Sensations , . 129 Process of Perception .......... 130
CONTENTS. i x
PAGE
Definition of Perception 132
Physiological Conditions of Perception ...... 133
Special Channels of Perception . . . . . . . .133
(a) Tactual Perception.
Characteristics of Tactual Perception ....... 135
Tactual Perception of Space . . . . . . . .136
(a) Limb-Movement as Source of Space-Consciousness . .136
(b) Localisation of Skin-Sensations ...... 140
(c) Simultaneous Perception of Points : Tactual Intuition of
(d) Other Modes of Space Perception : Solidity, etc. . . . 142 Perception of Material Quality : Impenetrability .... 144 Connexion between Ideas of Body and Space ..... 145
Other Modes of Tactual Perception 146
Integration of Tactual Perceptions : Intuition of Thing . . . 147
(b) Visual Perception.
Tactual and Visual Perception ........ 149
Visual Perception of Space . . . . . . . . .150
(a) Ocular Movement as Factor in Spate Consciousness . .151
(b) Simultaneous Retinal Perception 151
Binocular Perception of Space ........ 154
Co-ordination of Tactual and Visual Perception 155
Perception of (Absolute) Direction 157
Perception of Distance ......... 157
Perception of Real Magnitude ........ 160
Perception of Relief and Solidity of Form 160
Perception of Objective Movement . 162
Growth of Visual Perception .163
Theories of Visual Space-Consciousness . . . . . .164
Visual Intuition of Thing 165
Identifying Objects .......... 166
Knowledge of Bodily Organism ........ 167
(c) Auditory Perception.
Space-Perception :
(a) Genesis of Aural Space-Consciousness 169
(b) Co-ordination of Aural and Extra-aural Factors . . . 170 Auditory Perception of Time ........ 171
Musical Perception . . . . . . . . . .172
Development of Perceptual Process . . . . . . . 173
The Regulation of Perception : The Art of Observation . . .175 Training in Sense-Observation . . . . . . . . 177
Psychology and Philosophy of Perception . . . . . .178
CHAPTER VIII. Reproductive Imagination : Memory
Transition from Presentation to Representation : The Temporary
The Revival of Percepts ......... 181
Process of Revival . . . . • • • ■ • .182
Differentiae of Images and Percepts 182
Coalescence of Image and Percept : Recogni ion of Objects . . 183
Reaction of Image on Percept 184
Distinctness of Images I &5
General Conditions of the Retention and Reproduction of Percepts . 187
(a) Depth of Impression .
(1) Intensity, etc., of Sensation
(2) Attention as Condition of Retention
(3) Repetition as Condition of Retention
(b) Laws of Suggestion : Association .
Laws of Suggestion : Contiguity.
Reproduction as Effect of Suggestion ....
Association of Ideas by Contiguity : Statement of Law Conditions of Contiguous Integration :
(a) Proximity in Time ....
(b) Combining Movement of Attention .
(c) Repetition and Association Derivative Laws of Associational Revival .
Experimental Investigations into Association Trains of Representations ....
Composite Trains : Motor Successions Verbal Integrations .....
(a) The Word-Complex
(b) Ideo-Verbal Integration .
(c) Ideo-Verbal Series ....
Memory and Expectation ....
Representation of Time Perception and Idea of Time Consciousness of Succession Representation of Past and Future Representation of Duration The Temporal Scheme
Remembering Events .
Othe Suggestion of Similars .
Nature of Assimilative Suggestion Assimilative Integration
Forms of Suggestion.
187 188 189 190
191 192
193 194
207 209
213 214 215
CONTENTS. xi
PAGE
Relation of Suggestion by Similarity to Contiguous Suggestion . . 216 Suggestion by Contrast . . . . . . . . .217
Simple and Complex Suggestion ........ 219
Divergent Suggestion . . . . . . . . . .221
Convergent Suggestion . . . . . . . . .221
Reproduction as a Resultant of a Sum of Tendencies .... 223
Active Factor in Reproduction : Recollection ..... 223
(a) Fixation of Ideas ......... 224
(b) Control of Suggestive Forces . . . . . . .225
Perfect and Imperfect Recollection 227
Memory and its Varieties ......... 229
Memory and Memories ......... 230
Course of Development of Memoiy . . . . . . .231
The Culture of the Memory 233
Art of Mnemonics ......... 234
Educational Discipline of the Memory ...... 236
CHAPTER IX. Productive Imagination
Reproductive and Productive Imagination 238
Nature of Production .......... 239
Limits to Imagination .......... 240
Passive and Active Imagination 241
The Process of Construction . 242
Receptive and Creative Imagination ....... 244
Various Directions of Construction ....... 245
(a) Intellective Imagination ........ 245
(b) Practical Construction : Contrivance 248
(c) ^Esthetic Imagination ........ 249
Relation of Imagination to Intellect 251
Course of Development of Imagination ...... 252
The Culture of the Imagination . . . . . . . .255
The Educational Management of the Imagination .... 256
CHAPTER X. Processes of Thought : Conception
General Nature of Thinking 259
Thought as Activity 260
Directions of Thought-Activity 261
(a) Analysis : Abstraction 261
(b) Synthesis : Conscious Relating ...... 262
OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY.
Comparison.
Discernment of Likeness and of Difference .
General Conditions of Comparison
(i) Objective Conditions of Comparison (2) Subjective Conditions of Comparison
Discriminative and Assimilative Comparison
Other Forms of Comparison ....
Connexion between Comparison and Analysis
General Thought ......
Thought and Language ....
Stages of Thinking .....
PAGE
, 264
, 265
, 268
, 270
, 271
General Ideas.
Nature of General Ideas . ....... 272
Generic Image as Starting-point in Conception ..... 272
Differentiation of Notions of Individual and Class .... 274
The Process of Generalisation ........ 275
Conception and Naming ......... 275
Psychological Function of General Names ... ... 27O
Progressive Use of Names 277
Formation of more Abstract Notions ....... 279
Names as Substitutes for Ideas ....... 280
Conception as Dependent on Social Environment Psychology of Language : Nominalism and Conceptualism Conception as Synthesis .......
The Control of Conception : The Logical Concept Educational Control of Processes of Abstraction .
282 284 287 288
CHAPTER XL
Processes of Thought {Continued) : Judgment and Reasoning (Knowledge).
Judgment.
The Mental Process in Judging ........ 290
Relation of Judgment to Conception ....... 291
Judging a Process of Mental Synthesis ...... 292
(1) Setting forth of Relations of Difference and Likeness: Identity. 293
(2) Setting forth of Relations of Space and Time : Substance and Cause .......... 295
General Antecedents of Judgment 298
Synthetic and Analytic Judgments ....... 299
Judgment and Belief .......... 300
Affirmation and Negation : Belief and Disbelief 301
Suspension of Judgment : Doubt . . , . . . . . 302
CONTENTS. xiii
Reasoning.
PAGE
Transition from Judgment to Reasoning 303
The Mental Process in Reasoning 304
Implicit Reasoning .......... 306
Practical Judgment : Tact ........ 307
Explicit or Logical Reasoning ........ 307
(a) Inductive Reasoning 508
Development of Inductive Process ...... 309
(6) Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . .311
Finding Applications and Finding Reasons . . . . .312
Reasoning as Activity and as Mechanical Process .... 312
Logical Control of Thought-Processes ....... 314
Self- Consciousness.
Development of Idea of Self ........ 315
(a) The Pictorial or Bodily Self 316
(b) The Inner or Mental Self 316
(c) Idea of Self as Enduring : Personal Identity .... 318 Notions of Others . . . . . . . . . 319
Intellection as Knowledge.
Cognition of Reality : Belief ........ 320
Nature of Belief 321
I. Intellectual Conditions of Belief :
(a) Belief and Ideation ......... 322
(0) Experience and Association ....... 323
Verbal Suggestion .......... 324
II. Effect of Feeling on Belief ........ 325
III. Belief and Activity 326
Logical Control of Belief : Knowledge 327
Knowledge as Social Product : The Common Mind .... 328
Authority and Individuality in Belief ....... 330
Belief and Knowledge : Philosophy of Cognition .... 331
Training of the Powers of Judgment and Reasoning .... 333
CHAPTER XII. Feeling : Simple Feelings
The Feelings and their Importance . . . . . . 336
Definition of Feeling .......... 337
Feeling and Presentation ......... 338
XIV
OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY.
Conditions of Pleasure and Pain.
Law of Stimulation .......
Impulse and its Gratification : Pains of Want
Quiet Pleasures : Repose ......
Pleasure and Pain and Form of Stimulus
Change as Condition of Feeling : Prolonged Stimulation
Effects of Change
Negative Pleasures and Pains .....
Decay of Feeling : Habit of Accommodation Counteractives of Decay : Habit and Feeling Juxtaposition of Excitations : Harmony and Conflict .
Varieties of Feeling, (a) Sense-Feelings.
How Feelings are to be Distinguished Characters of Sense-Feelings .....
Complexity and Alteration of Sense-Feelings
References for Reading .....
TAGE
• 340
• 341
• 343
• 343
• 344 ■ 346
• 348
• 350
• 352
357 358 360 361
CHAPTER XIII. (b) Complex Feelings : Emotions
Structure of Emotion .......... 362
Rise and Fall of Emotion : Emotional Persistence .... 363
Influence of Emotion on the Thoughts ...... 364
Development of Emotion.
The Instinctive Factor : Expression ....... 365
Differences of Emotive Reaction : Pleasurable and Painful Emotion . 366 Specialised Manifestations of Emotion ...... 367
Inherited Emotive Associations ........ 368
Effect of Experience : Modification of Instinctive Reactions . . 369 Growth of the Presentative Factor in Emotion : Ideal Feeling . . 370 How Feeling is Revived : Associated Feeling ..... 371
Differentiation of Emotion : Refinement ...... 374
Varieties of Emotion.
Classification of Emotive States : Order of Development . . -374 Three Orders of Emotion . 376
(1) Characteristics of Joy and Grief 378
(2) Instinctive Emotions : Egoistic and Social Feelings . -379
Approbation and Self-Feeling ...... 380
(3) Representative Emotion : Sympathy 381
(4) The Abstract Sentiments 384
(a) The Intellectual and Logical Feelings .... 385
(b) The Esthetic Sentiment 388
(e) The Moral Sentiment . 39 2
CONTENTS. xv
PAGE
The Culture of the Feelings 395
The Educational Control of the Feelings 399
CHAPTER XIV. Voluntary Movement
Definition of Conative Phenomena ....... 403
Conation in its Relation to Feeling and Cognition .... 404
Roots of Voluntary Action : Instinct and Experience .... 405
Primitive Movements :
(a) Movements not Psychically Initiated : Random Automatic
Movements 406
(3) Sensori-Motor Movements : Conscious Reflexes . . . 407 (c) Instinctive Movements ........ 409
Genesis of Voluntary Movement . . . . . . . .411
The Factors of Voluntary Action ....... 414
Desire.
The Analysis of Desire . . . . . . . . • 415
Desire and Aversion ..... .... 418
Conditions of the Strength of Desire ....... 419
Desire and Motive .......... 420
Motor Ideas as Constituents in Volition ...... 421
Initiation and Actual Performance ....... 422
Variations in Type of Voluntary Movement 423
Development of Voluntary Movement : Growth in Precision . . 425
Complication of Movement : Construction 426
Imitative Movement 4 2 7
Movement and Verbal Suggestion : The Word of Command . . 429 Internal Origination of Movement ....... 430
Voluntary Movement and Consciousness of Power . . . . 431
Habit.
General Nature of Habit 432
Plabit and Routine 435
Degrees of Habitual Co-ordination ....... 435
Habit and Plasticity of Movement 437
Habit and Volition • -438
The Training of the Will through the Exercise of the Muscular
Organs 43 s xvi OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY.
CHAPTER XV. Complex Action : Conduct
PAGE
Simple and Complex Action 441
Motive-Ideas 443
Unification of Action : Permanent Ends . . . . . . 444
Desiring Means as Ends ......... 445
Non-Personal Ends : Desire and Pleasure ...... 446
(a) Co-operation of Impulses ....... 447
(6) Opposition of Impulses ........ 448
Arrest of Action : Inhibition ........ 448
Action Arrested by Doubt 449
Recoil of Desire : Deterrents from Action 450
Rivalry of Impulses . . . . . . . . . . 451
Passive Resolution of Conflict ........ 452
Regulated Conflict : Deliberation ....... 452
Choice of Decision .......... 454
Resolution: Firmness of Will ........ 457
Process of Self-Control ......... 459
(a) Control of Action ......... 460
(6) Control of Feelings ......... 462
(c) Control of the Thoughts ........ 464
Connexion between Control of Thought, Feeling and Action . 465 Volitional Control of Belief ........ 467
Limits of Control : Measurement of Volitional Force . . . . 468
Habit and Conduct : Deliberation as Habitual ..... 470
Moral Habitudes 470
Volition and Character ......... 471
(a) Character as Organised Habit 472
(Z>) Character as Conscious Reflection ...... 473
Relation of Higher to Lower Volition ....... 474
Volitional Effort : Consciousness of Power . . . . . . 475
Consciousness of Freedom : Free-Will 478
Psychology and Philosophy of Free-Will ...... 479
Education of the Will 482
Special Problems of Moral Education 483
Chapter XVI
Concrete Mental Development : Individuality. Unity of Mental Development ........ 486
(a) Interactions of Intellect and Feeling : Interests . . . 4S6 (3) Interactions of Intellect and Feeling with Conation . .487
CONTENTS. xvii
PAGE
Typical and Individual Development 488
Varieties of Mind 489
Scientific View of Individuality : Measurement of Psychical Capacity . 490 Causes of Individual Variation ........ 493
Extreme Variations :
(a) Variations of Height : Genius ...... 494
(b) Extreme of Normal Pattern : Eccentricity of Character . . 496
The Normal and the Abnormal Mind 496
Abnormal Tendencies in Normal Life ...... 497
Dreams as Abnormal Phenomena ....... 499
Artificial Sleep : the Hypnotic State 499
Transition to Pathological Psychoses 501
Education and Individuality 503
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE.
Psychology and Philosophy of Mind : Mind and Body . . . 505 Index 511
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