Educational issues in the kindergarten

Front matter

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Author's Preface

Within the past thirty years all grades of education from the kindergarten to the university have been more or less influenced by the scientific doctrine of relativity as the controlling principle of the universe; by the working hypothesis of physiological psychology that " mental action may be uniformly and absolutely a function of brain action/' and by the undue ascendancy of industrial aims over the mind of the American people.

The primary object of this book is to trace the results of these influences upon the kindergarten. The hope with which it has been written is that portrayal of their results within one small province of education may help to direct attention to the disasters they have caused and are causing in all provinces of education.

The plan of the book is a very simple one. Each of the above-mentioned modes of thought is concretely presented in the t}^ical example of a kindergarten programme. Each programme is discussed with the purpose of throwing its creative principle into clear relief. Finally, some suggestion is given of the influence of this principle in other spheres of life and thought.

xii AUTHOR'S PREFACE

In addition to its general aim this book has a secondary and more specific purpose. It endeavors to set forth the theories of Froebel with regard to the education of little children.

The educational creed of Froebel contains four reciprocally dependent articles. The first is that man is a self-creative being; the second, that in virtue of this fact education shall encourage self-expression; the third, that encouragement shall be given only to those modes of self-expression which are related to the values of human life; the fourth, that all great human values are revelations of the aboriginal self -determining energy which achieves its own ideal form in self-consciousness. This final article does not deny the influence of man's biologic and historic heredity, nor does it deny the influence of either his physical or his social environment. It does, however, insist both upon the priority and the primacy of self-determination.

The creators of concentric programmes either reject or ignore all these articles of the Froebelian creed. The creators of free-play programmes accept the first and second, but either reject or ignore the third and fourth. The creators of industrial programmes accept the first three, but deny or ignore the fourth, and thereby are betrayed into practical methods which violate the articles they theoretically affirm.

It is due to readers of this book that I should explain my reason for devoting its final chapter to a discussion of different philosophic world-views.

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The conflicting practice of kindergartners implies divergent conceptions of education. These divergent conceptions of education are not mere eddies in the stream of thought, but correspond with different directions of its main current. In its jubilant sense of conformity with nature, and in its swift surrender to fatal impulse, the free-play kindergarten repeats in its tiny circle the self-destructive sweep of naturalism. In its tendency to conceive the child as shaped and fashioned by the historic process; in its reaction from intellectualism to an exaggerated voluntarism, and in its practical emphasis upon functional values, the industrial kindergarten betrays the influence of pragmatism. In its conception of the child, its symbolism and its freightage of free activity with ideal values, the Froebelian kindergarten reveals a lineage from the philosophy of idealism. A study of educational issues in the kindergarten which should omit consideration of these three world- views would therefore dismiss its subject without any final explanation.^

In the discussion of pragmatism I have restricted myself to that form of the doctrine which has affected the practice of the kindergarten.

In my presentation of the philosophy which underlies the kindergarten I do not claim to have repeated exactly the conscious thought of its founder.

1 The connection of the concentric programme with Herbart's "World View" is shown in chapter V. Herbart's " World View " never obtained general currency.

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Froebel was a religious m3'stic. His power of intuitive divination far exceeded his power of philosophic statement. I believe that the philosophy of idealism as presented in the final chapter of this book is implied in Froebel's mystic conception of the dogma of the Trinity and in his own conception of man as Gliedganzes. Furthermore, I hold that this is the only philosophy which adequately interprets his educational procedure.

My grateful acknowledgments are due to Prof. Charles Hubbard Judd, of Yale University, for his kindness in explaining to me an important question of genetic psychology, and to Prof. John Angus MacVannel, of Columbia University, for help received from his monograph on " The Educational Theories of Herbart and Froebel,^' for his courtesy in reading the proof of this book, and for valuable advice.

Susan E. Blow.

Cazenovia, N. Y., June 13, 1908.

Chapter I Page

The kindergarten embodies great educational ideals — Results of an inadequate grasp of these ideals — Three departures from the Froebelian ideal — Aim of the book, 1. A concentric programme, 2-7. Discussion of concentric programme — Four defects inherent in its principle: First, assumed priority of conscious thought ; second, imposition of a thoug-htmass; third, sacrifice of specific values; fourth, substitution of arbitrary connections for causal ties, 8-10. Results of concentric programmes in the kindergarten, 10. Pedigree of concentric programme, 1 1-13. Concentric programmes in the school, 13-19. The principle of concentration^ — Its defect the assumption that mutually repellent subjects may be fused — Contrast of scientific and humane studies — Scientific studies should be so presented as to lead to discovery of causes — Humane studies should be so presented as to lead to a knowledge of human nature — Special sciences and special groups of the humane studies demand different methods — • Values of mathematics, physics, botany, zoology, literature, art, and history — Methods adapted to awaken consciousness of these values, 19-29. Principle of concentration rooted in doctrine of apperception as explained by Herbart — Two defects in this explanation: First, primacy of intellect over feeling and will; second, doctrine that presentations are the

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elements of mental life — Educational atomism — Its two forms: First, emphasis upon sensations as original elements of mind; second, emphasis upon associative processes — Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Herbart as atomic educators, 29-32. Froebel discards both forms of educational atomism, 33.

CHAPTER II The Froebelian Antithesis or Contrast . . 33-75

Froebel's vortical education versus the concentric education of some Herbartians — Thought - masses and typical facts — Facts as relative and absolute syntheses — Definition of a typical fact — It must suggest a creative energy, 33-35. Illustrations of the power of typical facts, 35-37. Typical facts appeal to imagination — Through their use Froebel captures the realm of phantasy, 37. Contrast between the psychology of the concentric programme and the psychology of the kindergarten: the former derives interest, desire, volition, from conscious thought; the latter begins with interest and desire w^hich express and define themselves in deeds, 38. The point of departure for kindergarten education, typical acts — These typical acts include play with typical objects and representation of typical characters, relations, and processes, 39. Arguments against kindergarten gifts — Discussion of these arguments, 39-42. Scientific value of play with archetypal forms, that it leads from effects to causes, 42, 43. Value of play with archetypal forms as related to art : First, leads to accurate seizure of concrete forms; second, leads to appreciation of rhythm, measure, and proportion, 43-52. Typical processes — Value of dividing and reconstructing wholes: value of sequences; value of evolutionary exercises mediating given antitheses,

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52-56. Relation of these values to Froebel's world-view, 56-59. Froebel's belief that all values are indigenous to the mind, 59-61. Kindergarten gifts and occupations contrasted with kindergarten games: the former relate to arts and sciences ; the latter prepare for the humanities, 61, 62. What is meant by the ideal — A cosmic community as both archetype and goal of creation — Relationship of human institutions to this goal — Educational function of the several institutions, 63-66. Typical characters, 66- 68. Typical relationships, 68, 69. Mistaken criticisms of the kindergarten, 69, 70. Typical processes, 70, 71. Value of types as concrete embodiments of universal ideals, 72, 73. The concentric programme and its Froebelian antithesis or contrast, 73-75.

CHAPTER III The Methodical Treatment of Literature . 76-92

Insistence upon value of classic stories the meritorious deed of Herbartian educators — ^This deed undone by using stories as cores of concentration and by subjecting them to methodical treatment, 76. Methodical treatment illustrated, 76-80. Criticism of methodical treatment: First, it kills interest in story; second, neutralizes influence of story; third, distracts attention from story; fourth, antagonizes children by calling for repetition of story; fifth, introduces irrelevant information; sixth, makes false appeal to moral sense, 80, 81. Three psychologic fallacies involved in the methodical treatment of literature: First, children should not define the feelings stirred by presentation of typical characters, collisions, and catastrophes; second, new facts do not seize upon the mind with greater force when they readily fuse with familiar ideas; third, children should not be

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made aware of all that is going on in their minds, 81-85. The methodical treatment of literature an outcome of Herbart's false analysis of mind — The soul is not " a simple wherein nothing exists but ideas, their relations and interactions" — Mind is an energy one and indivisible; feeling, willing, and knowing special modifications of this energy, 86. The methodical treatment of stories attacks the spirit of literature by interpreting its typical characters and situations — Literature knows no moral imperatives — Its appeal is not to understanding but to imagination, 87. Methodical treatment of literature in the kindergarten, 88-90. Summary of criticisms on concentric programme and methodical treatment of literature, 91, 92.

CHAPTER IV Literature and Life 93-124

Nursery rhymes portray elementary types of character and situation — Illustrations, 93, 94. Value of typical characters ; they begin the work of sorting humanity into classes, 95. Traditional tales begin the revelation of ideal humanity — National myths define this ideal more clearly, 96. The ideal human being as portrayed in Aryan myth has: First, a divine heredity; second, a double selfhood; third, a besetting sin; fourth, he inspires the hatred of lesser men; fifth, explores and subdues the world and himself; sixth, sacrifices himself for others ; seventh, realizes himself through self-renunciation, 96-99. Differences between Greek, Roman, and Teutonic myths: Greece reveals beautiful individuality; Rome, self -subordination; Teutonic myth destructive self-assertion, 100-1. Connection of Greek myth with Greek history — Greece realized the ideal of freedom in the

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form of beauty — Beauty is " the shining of self-activity" — Greece made nature human; made man divine; created beautiful bodies through disciplined activity; revealed free activity in statues; created all forms of literary art ; made language the material of literary art; produced standard work of literary criticism (Aristotle's Poetics); fought Asia in defense of ideals of freedom — Defined freedom in her philosophy, 101-3. Rome embodied freedom in the form of law — Originated the idea of contract — The combination of two wills suggests a common will — The community which safeguards contract is a higher revelation of common will — Recognition of transcendental will calls forth purpose and patriotism — Purpose recognized in nature — All lesser purposes organized to accomplish the higher purpose of the state — "Cosmic patriotism/' 103-5. The Teutonic peoples clamor for satisfaction of immediate impulse and recognition of their immediate personality — ^These are savage and self-destructive demands. They assert the form of freedom but deny its substance — ^They portend a tragic destiny — This tragic destiny is adumbrated in the great Teutonic myth all of whose chief personages perish through fatal deeds, 105-9. The Hebrew contribution to the ideal of freedom — The objective validity of the moral as point of departure for the Hebrew religion — The inseparable correlate of morality is will — ^Therefore if morality has objective validity there is a personal God — Righteousness and loving-kindness are necessary implications of personality — The Hebrews revealed the true God — ^The nation lived by faith in this God — The Covenant of Righteousness, 109-13. Retreat of contemporary thought from morality to expediency, 113-14. Historic ascent from the concept of a Personal God whose necessary attributes are justice and love to the doctrine of the Trin- 1

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ity, 114-15. Initial form of this doctrine, 115-16. Double reaction of the Teutonic peoples to the Christian ideal as illustrated in the legends of chivalry and the legend of Faust, 116-18. Historic resolution of the contradiction which rends the soul of germaine peoples — ^What is claimed for any one man must be granted to all men — Gunpowder — Printing — Luther — Transfiguration of the Faust myth by Goethe — Adequate definition of freedom by Hegel, 118-19. Germany solves theoretic implications of freedom — England and America discover the practical instrumentalities by which freedom may be established among men: First, Local self-government; second. National government of, by, and for the people; third, public schools; fourth, public libraries; fifth, steamships, railways, telegraph wires, and newspapers, 119-20. Runnymede and Shakespeare, 120- 21. Goal of history the federated union of the world and the cosmopolitan individual — Mutual action and reaction of literature and life, 121-23. Summary and prophecy — Man creates himself in and through communion with men — History and literature reveal the stages of his self-realization in ever enlarging communities — Both prophesy as their consummation the realization of freedom in and through a cosmic community, 123-24.