Our city schools, their direction and management

Front matter

Gop>TightN".

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

BY WILLIAM ESTABROOK CHANCELLOR

Preface

The present book follows an earlier one entitled Our Schools : Their Administration and Supe?-vision. In that book, I had in view communities of from five thousand population to forty or fifty thousand. In this, I have considered the larger cities.

The true unit of all educational endeavor, the teacher and his class (or " school," as the group is known in many localities of the South and West), is not the same internally or externally in the great city as it is in the town or village.

Similarly, the work of the superintendent is strangely changed ; almost equally changed is the work of the building principal.

The city, the great city ever tending to become yet greater, is the insoluble problem of civilization ; its degeneration and collapse have hitherto been inevitable. Universal education may be the missing factor by which mankind is to solve the problem.

It was my fortune about the time when Our Schools was published to change from the direction of public education in a community of twelve thousand population, within the metropolitan district with its millions of men, women, and children around New York harbor, to a community of one hundred and thirty thousand population within the same district and, in connection with that superintendency, to assume a lectureship in school administration in New York University. In less than two years after this change, it was my fortune to be placed in what may fairly be called a strategic position in relation to the progress of education by administrative changes, — the superintendency of schools in the National Capital at a time of revolution, not wholly wise, in fundamental school legislation. This revolution included the certification of teachers, hitherto not required ; assignment to the superintendent of the right and obligation to nominate teachers and janitors ; establishment of examining vi PREFACE

boards for applicants for positions ; complete separation of the two races, white and colored ; creation of a board of education consisting of men and of women, white and colored ; divesting the board of all financial authority and vesting it partly in a school-house commission, but mainly in Congress ; and correlating for each race the many hitherto separate school divisions of the District.

It has also been my fortune, as pupil and teacher, to know the schools of such widely separated cities as Dayton, Worcester, New York, Philadelphia, Lincoln, Bloomfield, Paterson, and Washington. Lastly, it has been my fortune to serve a town, a city, and a national government of unusual generosity in providing funds and leaves of absence for personal observation of schools in other communities, so that I have been able to visit schools in a hundred and fifty communities, through a range of territory from Seattle to Boston and from Atlanta to St. Paul.

This experience has emphasized in my mind that conclusion of German philosophy : The mechanism is of universal significance and conditions the success of the activities of the spirit} Contrary to many, I am obliged (by what I have seen) to hold that a correct school system is absolutely essential to good schools within the system. In the poor school system, the good school is an accident and is always in peril of destruction. In the good school system, the poor school is an anomaly and is certainly in process of reform and of improvement. In other words, I know that a good teacher cannot evolve a good school everywhere, and that a poor teacher is growing better or is removed where the right system prevails.

In view of the rights of men and women to labor in their accustomed occupations, I am not willing to go so far as to say that every child is entitled to the best available teacher ; but I do not hesitate to assert his claim to the best known methods and devices of legislation, of administration, of supervision, of discipline, and of instruction, to the end that whatever teacher

J Lotze, Microcosmus, preface.

PREFACE vii

he has shall be able to do the best for him. Such is the power of teachers in every community, whether deserved or undeserved, that no superintendent who would reform the service by changing its personnel can long hold office. Nor would I divert the attention of educators from matters of pedagogical technique and of professional scholarship, though I am of the opinion that we neglect general scholarship and ignore the sure fruitioning of knowledge in motives, in ideals, and in judgments. But I mean to bring into the light of public attention and consideration the necessity that the incompetent teacher should accept the good system upon which the competent educator insists.

How to require such acceptance is the problem of the educational law-deviser and administrator. Too long have teachers in authority asked only better work from those under their authority. My proposition as a democrat is to look to the authority itself, and to improve the methods and the processes by which that authority expresses itself in State laws, in Board rules, and in the orders of educational directors.

A book of this character is not designed for experienced city school administrators, but rather for students of education. Not a few of its remarks will seem needlessly elementary to critics. In some cities, there are certain features actually in advance of matters that, presented here in academic fashion, seem radical. No one city exemplifies all that is advocated, yet little is here proposed that is not a reality somewhere. I have meant to construct a system of principles. Of course, the annual report of the superintendent and board of a large city usually contains more material and touches more points than are considered here, and whatever I have said should be criticised in the light of common day.

The receipt of more than five hundred personal letters from readers of my earlier book warrants me in acknowledging heartily the manner of its acceptance by the profession of educators. I hope that this study, also, will prove helpful.

W. E. C.

Washington, D.C., January i, 1908.

AND SYLLABUS OF CHAPTERS

PAGE

Preface v

A correct system as necessary as correct educational methods.

Chapter I. The State and the School . . . i

The State is society organized as government, i. The' modern State is itself controlled by Property and Business, i. Educational activities of the United States Government, 2. A Secretary of Education of Cabinet rank, 3. Inequalities of educational opportunity in the various States, 4. Centralization within certain States, 4. The State legislature is really the highest school board, 5. The desirability of a strong State board of education, 5. Suggestions by way of sociological prognosis, 6. Powers of the State board, 7. Powers of the State superintendent, 9. Powers of the State board of examiners, 11. Comparison of country and city, 12. The county, 13. Elective v. appointive ^ boards, 14. Powers of the city board, 16. Comparative .interest taken in private benevolence and in public tax expenditure, 20. The two political traditions, maximum and minimum of State power, 20. Geographic comparisons,

21. Social comparisons, 21. True function (^private philanthropy, 21. The State as founder of the Universal School, 22ftJ The proper period of education,

22. The educational progress of the individual, 22. Education is the solvent of the city slum, 23. The educational curriculum should widen and deepen with life, 23.

Chapter II. The City School System . . -25

Several ways of securing appointment as city superintendent, 25. Advantages of promoting a subordinate, 26; disadvantages, 26. Advantages and disadvantages of the superintendent from outside, 29. The extent and rapidity of the work of the superintendency, 28. The duties of the superintendent, 28. The essentials to success, 29. Administrative organization of city school systems, 29. Locus and ch^acter of supervision, 30. Vertical v. horizontal supervision, 30. The necessity for direction and supervision, 31. The nature of a school, 33. The principal as central authority, 33. The principal as an addendum, 33. Historical account of the two kinds of schools, 33. Centralization V. individualization, 35. Advantages of the centralized school, 35. The principle of the educational continuum, 35. Disadvantages of the individualized school, 36, Housing v, educating the children, 37. The educational organization of a city school system, 38. Primary and intermediate schools

V. Complete elementary schools, 40. Normal size of a school, 40. The great city school, 41. The salary problem, 42. A proposed schedule, 43, Basis of increase, 45. Promotional examinations, 46.

Chapter III. The Business Officers of the City System 49

The true way for a board to secure large authority, 49. Salary schedule of higher officers, 49. Responsibility and duties of the school attorney, 50. A warning to the secretary, 50. The business manager, 51. The work of the school architect is not less important than that of the school superintendent, 52. Competition for plans ineffective, 52. Either the school architect or the business manager should employ engineers and janitors, 52. Strictly civil service reform methods should control their appointments, promotions, demotions, transfers, and dismissals, 53. Cheap " help " and political " help " are too common, 53. Cleaning the building by contract v. Salaries to all janitors and assistants, 54. Schedule of salaries, 55. Separation of engineer service from that of the janitor, 56. Repair shops, 57.

Chapter IV. The City School 58

The schoolhouse, 58. Value of American schoolhouses, 58. The schoolroom unit, 59. So-called " extra schoolrooms," 59. The remedy for the present conditions, 60. Lighting, 61. Stairways, 5i. Cellar, 62. Desks, 62. Toilet rooms, 62. Ventilation, 63. Doors and windows, 63. Library, 63. Other requisite rooms, 63. Blackboards, 63. Double kindergarten, 64. Typical enrollment in city school, 64. The proper location of a schoolhouse is in a park, 64. Danger of too large a plot, 65. Competitions for plans, 65. The teaching complement, 65. Medical inspector and school nurse, 66. School librarian, 66. Duties of the principal, 66. The library of the principal, 67. The social influence of the principal, 68. Salary increases, 69. Organization of classes and grades, 70. Departmental teaching, 71. Comparison of the work of the city school principal and village superintendent, 72. Heads of departments in large schools, 72. Daily programmes, 72. Use of the assembly room, 73. Length of school periods, 73. Plan for department of four teachers, 75. The services of special teachers, 77.

Chapter V. Equipment 78

Comparative importance of buildings, of equipment, and of teachers, 78. Lanterns and globes, 78, 79. Blackboards, 79. Exhibit cabinets, 80. Provisions against fire, 80. Telephone service, 80. The United States flag, 81. The manual training center, 81. The furniture should be substantial and artistic, 82. The schoolroom desk, 82. Various items, 83. Flowers in the schoolroom, 83. Gas and electric lighting, 84. " Power," 84. Seating of the assembly hall, 84. Platforms, 85. Pianos, 85. Furniture for the art museum, 86. Common sense is incompetent to furnish a schoolhouse properly, 86. Who should pay for text-books? 87. " Listing" books and supplies, 87. Not enough books are now used, 88. The requisite qualities of a good text-book, 89. Estimated cost of equipment of loan text-books, 90. Free gift of other supplies, 91. School and class libraries, 92. Relation of the public

CONTENTS xi library to the public school, 93. The kindergarten equipment, 93. Gymnasiums, 94. A good laboratory necessary in the elementary school, 95. A system of laboratories in high schools, 95. Schoolroom decoration, 95. A central building for teachers' classes and meetings, 96. Equipment of the rooms of supervisors and of other officers, 97,

Chapter VI. The Pupil g8

The pupil as the subject of school administration, 98. Principles of pupil collection, 99. The neighborhood as a factor in school location, 99. Early adolescence as the dividing time, ^'99. Sex as the dividing line, 100. The seasons as a factor in studies, loi. The effect of fatigue upon study periods, loi. ' Psychology v. Sociology, loi. The attempted uniformity, 102. The true test is displayed by psychogenetics, 102. The true school is a relation between two, 103. The outlook of the principal, 103. Growth v. Education, 103. The limits of the true school community, 103. Four school groups recommended, 104. Age classification, 104. The fatigue levels, 106. The higher educational institutions of the city, 106. Its educational value the sole reason for introducing a subject, 108. Comparative maturities of children, 108. Differentiation and integration essential in civilization, 109.

Chapter VII. Special Schools . . . . , no

School uniformity and its perils, no. Comparison of communities at the extremes of uniformity and of variety, no. Economy of a completely varied system, in. The so-called "democratic" objection to classification of children and of youth, 112. Ignorance of what education is, 112. The economic pressure for early completion of schooling, 113. Half-timing a necessity, 113, Complexity of modern life, 114. Special schools are complementary to the regular schools, 114. The evening school, 114. This school a makeshift needed in a transitional era, 116. Construction of schoolhouse for double purpose of day and evening instruction, 116. The high school building should accommodate day, evening, atid half-timing pupils, 116. Text-books for adults, 117. Trade-texts, 117. Programmes for evening school classes, 119. Correlation of instruction, 121. A vocation, an avocation, and a recreation are requisite, 122. The school for defectives, 122, The normal and the variant, 123. Home is the keynote, 125. Principles governing admission to special day and home schools, 126. Qualifications of teachers, 127. A phase of the discipline difficulty, 128. The special school is a prophylactic against pauperism and criminality, 128. Wealth is incommensurate with humanity, 129. A charitable society is cooperative, 129. No child can be pauperized, 129. The source of wealth is labor-skill, not natural treasures, 129. Kinds of special schools required, 130. The parental school should be isolated but not inaccessible, 130. Congenital types, 131. The reformation school, 133. Qualifications of teachers, 134. Site and buildings, 135. Course of instruc-' tion should be characteristically physiological, 136. The juvenile court, 136. Attendance (compulsory education) officers, 137. Summer schools, 137. Evening lectures for adults, 139. Democracy requires broadly diffused knowledge, 139. Need of a new kind of schoolhouse, 141. Location and use of ungraded individual-help classes, 142.

xii CONTENTS

Chapter VIII. Programmes and Records . .145

Importance of caring for the immediate future, 145. Conditions of a rational will, 146. The several values of records, 146. The school day to the child v. to the teacher, 147. A general daily programme for Grade IV, 148. A special daily programme, 148. Why records save time, 151. The plan book, 151. Vertical v. Horizontal courses of study, 152. Records required, 153. Analysis of the present opinion regarding marks, 154. Importance of complete records or else relying on present opinion only, 156. Contrast of urban and rural schools in relation to the home, 157. The argument against examinations, 158. The function of reviews, 159. Tests from the central office should be to equalize atid standardize work, never to examine pupils, 160. Preservation of the pupil's record, 160. Transfer of records on promotion inadvisable, 160.

Chapter IX. Aids and Accessories . , . .162

Home and school, 162. The process of decadence in the total progress of civilization, 162. Theory of the social institutions, 163. The process of decadence in the progress of human character, 163. Theory of the anti-social institutions, 164. Home and school center upon the child, 165. Effect of parental ignorance, 166. Character of present parents' associations, 167. Conditions of their successful establishment and maintenance, 167. The " mothers' club," 168. The city public education society, 169. Without conflict, freedom dies, 169. Influence of the public press upon opinion, 169. Sidetracking of the superintendent, 170. Medical inspectors, 170. School nurses, 171. Gang 71. Club, 172. Scheme of school clubs, 173. The secret society, 174. The teaching of parliamentary law, 175. School athletics, 176. Their governing board, 176. Individualizing athletics, 176. Scheme for organization of teachers' associations for a large city, 177.

Chapter X. Converting the Occupation into a Profession 178

The superintendent is the intermediary between the School and the World, 178. Lay-domination v. School-intrigue, 179. The schools as they are v. The schools as they may be made, 180. Dwelling in the house of the interpreter, 180. Why the board of education should represent Culture, not Business, not Politics, 181. A "vicious circle," 181. Every good man is willing to be a public man, 181. Function of the board of examiners in converting education into a profession, 182. Its composition, 182. Character of examinations, 183. Competitive examinations for higher positions, 184. Villagers in cities as critics of its school affairs, 185. Examiners may "list" text-books, 185. Eligible lists, 186. The open, optional text-book list, 187. Advantages of the board of associate superintendents as compared with several assistants, 187. Teachers' pensions, 188. Municipal pensions, 189. The retiring board, 189. Teachers' advanced courses, 190. The city normal school causes inbreeding, 191; and lowers salaries, 191. The " teachers' college," 192. Paying for the financial support of apprentice teachers, 192. Practice-classes, 193. The teachers' council, 194. Various plans for its institution and organization, 194. The principle of professional loyalty, 196.

xiu

Appendix

PAGE

A. i. Open Letter to Educators desirous of becoming Superin-

tendents of Schools in Large Cities . . . .199 ii. Open Letter to Members of Boards of Education and to

Candidates for Board Membership .... 205

B. The Annual Report 210

C. The Food Question 214

D. Forms : General Note 2i6

i. Report of Supervisory Officer upon Condition of School . . . 218

ii. Principal's Rating by Supervisory Officer 220

iii. Requirements for Teacher's First License 221

iv. Form of Temporary License 223

V, Form of Permanent License 223

vi. Examination Record of Candidate for Certificate . . . , 224

vii. Form of Application for Endorsement of Diplomas and Certificates . 225

viii. Teachers' Directory 227

ix. Assignment of Teacher to School 227

X. Termination of Service 228

xi. Change of Name 228

xii. Change in Salary Schedule 229

xiii. Quality of Service 229

xiv. Transfer 230

XV. Experience 230

xvi. High School Entrance 231

xvii. Special Teacher's Rating by Supervisory Officer .... 231 xviii. Recommendation by Supervisory Officers as to Teacher's Promotion 232 xix. Form of Reference by Superintendent to Other Educational Authorities regarding Candidate . ■ 233

XX. Notification of Retirement on Civil Pension 23s

xxi. Absence with Pay 236

xxii. Teaching Record 338

xxiii. Substitute's Certificate 239

xxiv. Transfer of Pupil out of City , 239

XXV. Form of Application for License as Teacher . . . . . 240

xxvi. Report upon Officers and Teachers 242

xxvii. General Report on Teachers' Standing 243

xxviii. Age and Schooling Certificate 245

xxix. Medical Examination of Candidate for Appointment as Teacher . 246

XXX. Notices of Transfer of Pupil within City 248

xxxi. Application for Admission to High School 249

xxxii. Record of Pupil's Attainments 250

xxxiii. Poster Notice of School Registration Days . . . . . 253

xxxiv. Otherwise " Lost " Pupils 234

XXXV. Newsboy's Permit and Badge , 256

xxxvi. Report upon Children wandering About , 257

XIV

D. Forms {continued) : page

xxxvii. Absentees and Illegally Employed Children 257

xxxviii. Parole and Probation Card 257

xxxix. Poster Notice of Child Labor and Compulsory Education Laws . 258

xl. Postal Card Notice of Truant or Absentee 258

xli. Postal Card Notice to Attendance Officer and Reply . . . 259

xlii. Evening School Admission Card 259

xliii. Commitment of Child to Reformatory 260

xliv. Notice of Absence from Evening School of Pupil within Compulsory Education Age 261

xlv. Exemption from Vaccination 261

xlvi. Notice of Absence from School to Employer and Reply of Employer 262

xlvii. Monthly Report of Attendance Officer 263

xlviii. Hearing upon Case of Absenteeism 264

xlix. Affidavit of Attendance Officer 265

L Annual Report by Principal upon Evening School .... 266

li. Notice to Attendance Officers of Commitment of Truant to Parental lii. Recreation Center Report 269

liii. Time Programme of Special Teacher 270

liv. Report of Inspector of Lectures 271

Iv. Time Programme of Manual Training Center 272

Ivi. Report of Lecturer 272

Ivii. Report of Kindergarten Mothers' Meetings 273

Iviii. Report of Library, Evening Recreation Center .... 274

lix. Instructions to Principals and Teachers in Evening Recreation

Centers 275

Ix. Literary Club Programme, Evening Recreation Centers . . 277

Ixi. Vacation School Excursion Report 278

Ixii. Report of Baths at Public School 278

Ixiii. Principal's Report upon Band Music 279

Ixiv. Form of Exclusion of Pupil apparently 111, by Medical Inspector . 279

Ixv. Form of Municipal Report upon School Attendance to State Officers 280

Ixvi. Teacher's Monthly Statistical Report 281

Ixvii. History of Child Truant 282

Ixviiu Statistical Account of Ages in Grades 283

Ixix. Report of Medical Inspector 284

Ixx. Observations on Child Proposed for Ungraded Class . . . 285

Ixxi. Record of Pupil at School 286

Ixxii. School Athletics 287

Ixxiii. Authorization of Vaccination by Public Health Physician , , 289

Ixxiv. Medical Report upon Defective Pupil 289

Ixxv. Text-book Record for School Year 290

Ixxvi. Voucher Schedule for Salaries 291

Ixxvii. Voucher Schedule for Supplies 292

Ixxviii. Official Billhead 293

Ixxix, Inventory of Heating Apparatus and Service 294

Ixxx. Card Record of Special Educational Articles 295

Ixxxi. Card Record of Incidental and General Expense Fund . . . 296

Ixxxii. Examination Record at High School Graduation .... 297

Ixxxiii. Payroll Receipts and Audit 298

XV

Forms (continued) :

Ixxxiv. Estimate of Needs for New Schoolhouse

Ixxxv. Inventory of Construction Cost of Schoolhouse . . . .

Ixxxvi. History of Site and Building . . . . . . . ,

Ixxxvii. Repairs to Schoolhouse

Ixxxviii. Operating Cost of Schoolhouse

Ixxxix. School Day Programme

xc. Application for School Tickets

xci. Report of Corporal Punishment Case

xcii. Annual Report of Parochial and Private Schools to City Superintendent

xciii. Postal Card Notice to Librarian

xciv. Report by Special Teacher

xcv. Form of Building Contract

E. Constitution of a Schoolmen's Club

F. Schedule of Salaries (Jersey City)

G. A Real Superintendency //. Teachers' Pensions

/. Bibliography ....

• 307

308' 309 309 310

334 337

THESES

By developing various social institutions, under the protection of the State, democracy means to secure both the freedom of the individual and the welfare of society.

In education, the purpose of democracy is to develop all the energies of all the people in order that, by becoming intelligent, efficient, and moral, they may all have life abundantly.

In every respect, each school should express the wealth, the culture, and the goodwill of society.

The educational curriculum should conform at the same time to the conditions of society and to the interests of the progressing individual soul.

To save its own life, this democratic civilization is building the universal school in many forms.

Universal education, let us hope, is the only missing factor requisite for the permanence of civilization.

As a social institution, the School requires direction and management by the profession of educators.

Chapter I The State And The School

By the State, we mean a society organized as government and controlled by force in respect to individuals and to other societies. The State has been conceived by some as practically synonymous with society^; but it is difficult to distinguish such a conception from State Socialism, a condition to which it must be admitted by all that no society has yet come. A State absolutely supreme means a dependent Church, a dependent Family, a dependent School, and a dependent Business, not to mention other social institutions. We are growing out of such a State, as appears upon investigation of the history of our North European ancestors and also upon consideration of the heritage of South European culture.

The individual is liberated in American democracy by the conflicts of numerous social institutions, each sufficiently strong to resist the encroachment of the others. He is not surrounded, circumscribed, confined by the social traditions, but sets them against one another. He is free in a free society. He and society become free together.

Vast and powerful as the State now is, one may seriously question whether that most ancient of human institutions. Property, is not really its master. This serious question opens into the very heart of the issue between

1 Bosanquet, Philosophical Theory of the State. Cf. page 163, infra. I private and public education ; an issue likely to grow in importance as the democratic State in America arrogates to itself more and more power over the lives of children, of youth, and of aspiring adults.^

The State manifests itself in certain famiUar forms, of which the chief is the Nation. Other forms of interest in the present inquiry are the State, the County, and the City. In each of these forms, American democracy undertakes to relate itself to the work of education.

There is a widespread notion that the Government of the United States concerns itself but little with education, maintaining only a National Bureau of Education for the collection and distribution of information. As a matter of fact, however, the Government has many other educational activities. At great annual expense, it maintains the Naval Academy at Annapolis and the Military Academy at West Point. It costs almost as much a year to train a cadet for military service as it does to restrain a felon from criminal practices by confining him at public expense in a penitentiary. The American Government maintains free schools in the Philippines and in Porto Rico. It maintains the public schools of the District of Columbia and certain special schools, and makes an annual grant to higher endowed education there. It maintains the various Indian schools and makes grants to others that receive Indians. It operates schools in Alaska. It instructs annually thousands of its soldiers and sailors and tens of thousands of its department clerks. In their practical operation, not a few of the

1 For the distinction between Business and Property, and for the question whether Business may not yet oust Property from control of the State, vide A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values in Education, Chapter II. Singular as it may appear upon historical grounds, business, which began as a mode of acquiring property simpler than war, is to-day in several aspects the potent destroyer of property. For a discussion of the effort of Business to get control of the School, vide op. cit.. Chapter VII.

bureaus of scientific inquiry are apprentice training schools. It pays ;iS25,ooo annually to each State for the support of higher agricultural and mechanical education. It has given hundreds of millions of acres of land to endow the common schools in many States. It incorporates educational and cultural societies. If all the educational enterprises of the various Departments were concentrated in one Department of Education, and if all the educational laws in the National Statutes and all the educational rules, regulations, and courses of study of all its Departments, Bureaus, and Boards were brought together and systematized, the Government would at once appear to be what it really is, the greatest single agency of education in all our lands.

Because the proposition to establish a Department of Education with a Secretary of Cabinet rank ^ has not yet risen to the prominence of a political issue and because the Congress maintains the policy of leaving all local affairs of education to the States (though not to the Colonies or to the Dependencies or to the District of Columbia and not entirely to the Territories), most men and women outside of Government circles imagine that the United States is indifferent to educational enterprises.

Whether this policy of decentralization in respect to local education is safe for the future of our people is

1 The arguments against elevating Education to Cabinet rank are too familiar to require development here. i. We have too many Secretaries now: why not combine War and Navy, the defence and offence departments ? 2. The Secretary would change with political changes : do we wish life-tenure and all its incidents in that office any more than in the State or Treasury or Agriculture departments ? 3. Education is not a political matter to be fought over or affected by political methods : is not this equally true of finance, of postal service, of international relations?

For a year or so after its establishment as such in 1867, Education was a Department.

Whatever view we take, we should endorse actively the plan of a great Education Hall at the Capitol; a National Museum of Arts and Sciences as notable in quality as the Library of Congress and larger.

gravely questioned by those who know the facts of illiteracy, of inefficiency, and of immorality in certain of our States. It is the old issue of Nationalism versus Federalism ; and it involves a matter not less serious than that of Negro slavery. For its own protection, American democracy, working in its strongest mode, the National Government, may yet be compelled to standardize and to subsidize education through all the States, to relieve this illiteracy, this inefficiency, and this immorality of the " mountain whites," of the " swamp blacks," of the child-laborers, and of the slum denizens. It may yet be necessary for the strong hand of the central Government to take of our accumulating wealth that our men may not decay.

A comparison of the school legislation of the various States and Territories of the Union reveals most striking differences. The greatest decentralization of authority by its distribution appears in Pennsylvania and the greatest centralization in Louisiana. The greatest local independence and variety of actual conditions prevail apparently in Massachusetts. New Jersey has a State Board of Education and also a State Board of Examiners of applicants for teachers' certificates. Some States have neither State Boards of Education nor State Boards of Examiners, while other States have only the latter, but style them by the other title. In examining the Statutes of a State, the first thing to determine is the meaning of such terms as board of education, county superintendent, and board of normal school control. Often when we think that we are discussing the same thing, in reality, because these terms have various contents, we are discussing different things.

The time may come when the United States Government, in particular the Congress and the President, shall become in all the States what they now are to education in the Philippines, in the District of