The modern service of commercial and railway telegraphy, in theory and practice

Preface

The preparation of this work was necessitated by the fact, that though many volumes had previously been published upon telegraphy, yet none of them were found to exhibit a thoroughly practical view of both commercial and railway telegraphy, including the railway station and express service, so brief, simple, and comprehensive, as to answer the purpose of a prac¬ tical text book. In the preparation of such a text book, two things demanded constant attention; first, that the time which the telegraphic student ordinarily devotes to the theory of his profession is very limited, and, second, that such students are generally unacquainted with science. For these reasons it was necessary that the statements of the work should be very con¬ cise, and yet clothed in language intelligible to the unlearned reader. Hence scientific terms and idioms have been generally discarded, and the work made as thoroughly practical as possi¬ ble, including, however, certain elementary principles of elec¬ trical science which are intimately associated with practical telegraphy, a knowledge of which should be acquired by all who aspire to recognition and position as telegraphers. Although there is almost an endless variety of contrivances for transmit¬ ting and receiving messages, involving different applications of

PREFACE.

electric and chemical science, the author has generally confined himself to the common Morse telegraphic system, and its im¬ provements, as it is the system principally used in the commercial and railway service. For this reason many branches of electric science have been omitted.

The method in which the work is composed (that of questions and answers), was chosen as being favorable to conciseness of statement, and at the same time, best adapted to use as a text book.

In the compilation of this work, which has involved a great deal of time and labor, much practical and valuable informa¬ tion respecting both commercial and railway telegraphy, and the railway station and express service, has been carefully se¬ lected from a large amount of material gathered together, from the experience of efficient operators in all grades of service, and from official as well as from other reliable sources, in connec¬ tion with the most prominent telegraph, railway, and express companies in this country. Much assistance has also been gained, from the use of Prescott’s admirable work, Electricity and the Electric Telegraph, Culley’s Handbook of Practical Telegraphy, Jenkins’ Electricity and Magnetism, several other telegraphic works and telegraphic and railway journals, and many personal favors, for all of which the author’s acknowledg¬ ments and thanks are herewith respectfully returned.

Part First. The Morse System Of Telegraphy

SECTION. PAGE.

I.—Instruction for Beginners ...... 9,

II.—Manipulation ....... 13

III. —The Morse Telegraph Alphabet ..... 14

IV. —Exercises in Manipulation ..... 19,

V. —The Morse and the Continental or International Alphabet . 27

VII.—Receiving or Reading by Sound . .... 30.

VIII.—Penmanship ....... 33

IX.—The Requisites for a First Class Operator . , . 39

X.—Science in Telegraphy—Electrical Engineering . * 42

Part Second. Electricity

SECTION. PAGE..

XI.—Electricity in General ...... 46

XII.—Frictional Electricity ...... 50

XIII. —Conduction, Insulation, and Induction . ... 52

XIV. —Technical Terms—Electrical Units . , . 54

XV.—Voltaic Electricity and the Means of Exciting It . .60

XVI.—Magneto-Electricity ...... 73

XVII.—Magnetism ....... 77

XVIII.—Electro-Magnetism ...... 83

XIX.—Thermo-Electricity—Atmospheric Electricity—Animal Electricity 86

CONTENTS.

Part Third. The Telegraph

SECTION.

XX.—Relation of Circuits and Instruments . .

XXI.—The Line or Main Circuit , •

XXII.—The Local Circuit .....

XXIII.—The Key .......

XXIV.—The Relay ......

XXV.—The Register and Sounder .....

XXVI.—The Box Relay or Main Line Sounder XXVII.—Arrangement of the Morse Apparatus and Care of the Instru¬ ments . ......

XXVIII.—The Repeater .......

XXIX.—The Duplex

XXX.—The Quadruplex ......

XXXI.—The Gray Harmonic System ....

XXXII.—Switches or Cut Outs—Switch Boards—Ground Wires and Lightning Arresters .....

XXXIII.—The Galvanometer— The Wheatstone Bridge—Resistance Coils—Rheostat—Condenser—Voltameter and Electro¬ meter .......

XXXIV.—Telegraph Faults or Interruptions XXXV.—Ordinary Testing—Electrical Measurement XXXVI.—Submarine Telegraphy—The Atlantic Cables . . .

XXXVII.—The Telephone.

Part Fourth. Commercial Business

SECTION.

XXXVIII.—Management of Commercial Offices ....

XXXIX.—The Operating Department ....

XL.—Messages—General Information—Associated Press—United States Signal Service, and Stock, and Produce Quota¬ tions ......

XLI.—Transmission of Messages

XLII.—Receiving and Delivery of Messages .... XLI 11 .—Telegraph Bookkeeping and Monthly Reports

PAGE.

no

in

PAGE.

CONTENTS.

Part Fifth. Railway Telegraphy

SECTION.

XLIV.—Management of Railway Offices—Train Despatches’ and Operators’ Duties—Circuit Regulations—Commercial Business—Car Reports or Statements—Time by Tele¬ graph .......

XLV.—Classification of Trains—Technical Terms .

XLVI.—Railway Signals—Electric Safety Signals XLVII.—Numerals and Abbreviations ....

XLVIII.—Movement of Trains by Special Telegraphic Order

XLIX.—Forms of Telegraphic Train Orders . . .

L.—The “ Absolute Block ” System of Train Dispatching as used on the Pennsylvania Railway . , , ,

Part Sixth. Railway Station Service

SECTION.

LI.—Management of Railway Stations LI I.—Freight Department LIII.—Passenger or Ticket Department .

L 1 V.—Baggage Department .

LV.—Railway Station Accounts LVI.—Express Business—General Information LVII.—Forwarding of Express Matter LVIII.—Delivery of Express Matter

Appendix

SECTION.

LIX.—Standard Time LX.—Uniform Train Signals .

LXI.—Telegraphic and Railway Notes

PAGE.

PAGE.

3°5

3 IX

PAGE.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIGURE. PAGE.

1. —Learner’s Instrument ....... io

2. —Position of Hand and Movement ..... 13

3. —Gravity Battery . . . . . . . .66

4. —Electro Magnet ....... 83

7. —Cumming Periphery Key . . . . . .113

8. —Bunnell Steel Lever Key . . . . . .

11. —Siemens Polarized Relay . . ... 120

14. —Western Union Pin Switch . . . . j-j

16. —Diagram of Pin Switch ..... 154

17. —Detector Galvanometer ...... 158

18. —Differential Galvanometer ...... j6 2

21. —Block Signal Station, Pennsylvania Railway .... 293

Section I. Instruction For Beginners

To acquire a thorough knowledge of telegraphy, the student should bear in mind at the begi?i?iing that proper attention must be given to the principles upon which telegraphs are operated and the apparatus employed. To become an expert operator requires much time and patience, together with unwearied appli¬ cation. Remember that great results cannot be expected from little labor, and whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well.

There is no duty of an operator which any person of ordinary ability may not readily perform, if they will but bestow the at¬ tention which they should willingly give to any undertaking.

Paper operators are now rare, and the student should learn to read by sound at once. It is as easy to cultivate the ear as the eye ; reading by sound leaves the sight free to direct the hand in copying messages.

Each lesson should be mastered before another is undertaken. Nothing is gained by rushing hurriedly over the ground. No.

IO business can be learned in a day; and telegraphy requires care¬ ful, methodical drill and study. It is better for two or more persons to practice together, taking turns in sending.

The basis of the whole telegraphic apparatus is the battery , the transmitting key , and the electro magnet (each described elsewhere); the essential part of the apparatus being the bat¬ tery, as it is from the chemical action created therein that is first generated the electric current, which is made to traverse long or short distances through the conducting medium of metallic wires.

Fig. i.

The instruments required for new beginners are practically the Morse sounder and key, separate, or attached to the same base, (see fig. i), and the battery for generating the electricity. The instruments should be securely fastened near the center of the table used for the purpose. And, if the sounder and key are separate, the key should be placed at the right hand side in such a position that the arm may obtain a rest while sending, and the sounder placed at the left hand side. To receive the conduct¬ ing wires small holes should be bored near the sounder binding posts, and larger ones to receive the legs of the key, which is then securely placed in its proper position. The instruments are then connected with the battery as follows: Starting from the battery run one wire to one of the binding posts of the in-

TELEGRAPHY.

I I

strument, and another wire from the opposite side of the battery to the other post of the instrument. When covered wire is used always bare the ends where the connections are made. If a key is used separately, cut one of the wires and fasten the ends to each leg of the key. See that all the screws are made tight, and that the sounder-lever works freely but not too far from the magnets. The spring which draws the armature lever upwards must have the right tension to allow the armature to respond to the magnet.

When the key is closed, a current from the battery will pass through the wire and magnet, and cause the latter to attract the armature, and the instant the key is opened the current will cease to flow, the magnet cease to attract, and the spring will draw the armature away. In this way the armature is made to follow exactly the movements of the key, no matter at what dis¬ tance they may be placed from each other, although in practice it is found that as the circuits are lengthened more battery power is required. When additional instruments are connected in the same circuit, the “circuit-breaker” at the side of the key should always be open while sending, and dosed for receiving , but if not in connection with other instruments, it may be left open all the time.

TO CONNECT TWO INSTRUMENTS TOGETHER FOR PRACTICE.

The return circuit may be made either by a continuous wire, or by connection with the earth at each end. For wires but a short distance in length, the return wire is best.

Starting from the respective poles of the battery, run a wire to one of the binding posts of each instrument, and then con¬ nect the remaining binding posts by a third wire. For two in¬ struments in connection, not farther than one hundred feet apart, use two or three cells of battery, adding one cell for each addi¬ tional instrument connected to the same wire.

PRIVATE LINES.

In the construction of short outdoor lines of over a quarter of a mile in length, only one wire is necessary, the earth being used for the return circuit. For such lines “No. 12 galvanized iron wire ” is the least expensive wire suitable for the purpose, copper being used inside of offices and buildings, covered with a coating of gutta percha, or wrapped with a continuous covering of cotton or silk.

The only instruments required for short lines are practically the Morse sounder and key. The sounder, however, must be of the proper resistance. The resistance of all the instruments on the line should be equal to the resistance of the battery and line. For lines between one and ten miles in length the instru¬ ments are required to have their magnets wound with finer wires than those used on circuits of less than one mile. Such instru¬ ments are from 10 to 30 ohms resistance, according to length of line.

The gravity battery is used for short lines, and should be placed in connection with the line between the instrument and ground connection, all at one end of the line, or part at one end and part at the other.

If it is found when one or more instruments are properly con¬ nected in a circuit according to directions, it or they do not work with enough strength to give the amount of sound wanted, addition of more battery will produce better results. Add one cell for each quarter of a mile added to the length of the wire

up to one mile, and then two or three cells for each addi¬ tional mile.

Note.—F or further information regarding “lines” see Section "XXI."

Section II. Manipulation

Manipulation or sending is the operation of forming tele¬ graphic signals upon the instrument called the key, by means of which, when in connection with the proper instruments and battery (herein described), is made to give out audible signals, which, being arranged in the form of an alphabet, enables us to read or speak, as it were, from a distance.

Fig. 2.-POSITION OF HAND AND MOVEMENT.

Manner of holding the key .—Place the first two fingers on the top of the key knob with the thumb under the edge, and the second finger a little on the opposite side, curve the first and second fingers so as to form the quarter section of a circle, par¬ tially close the third and fourth fingers (see Fig. 2), allow the wrist to be perfectly-limber. Rest the arm on the table at or near the elbow 3 let the grasp upon the key be firm but not rigid; never allow the fingers or thumb (while sending) to leave the key, nor the elbow to leave the table; avoid too much force or too light touch, and strive for a medium, firm closing of the key. Learn to handle the key as easily as you would a pen.

The motion to be imparted is directly up and down, avoiding

all side pressure.

The movement is made principally at the wrist, although the finger and hand must be perfectly elastic.

The fingers, wrist, and arm should move uniformly in the same direction.

The downward movements produce the dots and dashes, and the upward the breaks and spaces.

Tapping upon the key should be carefully avoided.

Never attempt to write with a finger movement. The fingers should be used merely to grasp the key.

Section III. The Morse Telegraphic Alphabet

Morse, in the arrangement of his conventional telegraphic alphabet, took as a unit of space or length the shortest available length of line, technically termed a dot . His alphabet was then made up of signs, forty-five in number, formed from three ele¬ ments, the DOT, the SPACE, and the DASH, arranged in va¬ rious combinations representing the following relative values :

The dot.One unit

The space or break between the elements of a letter. . One unit

The space, employed in the “spaced letters”.Two units

The space separating the letters of a word.Three units

The space separating w r ords.Six units

The short dash.Three units

The long dash..Six units

“ Prof. S. F. B. Morse, in considering the mechanical means at command for producing at a distance any permanent mark, per¬ ceived that by means of the electro-magnet the motion of a lever, up and down, could be easily and surely commanded ; and if a pencil at one extremity of it were made to strike upon a piece of paper, a dot would be made whenever the magnet

TELEGRAPHY.

was charged and quickly discharged. This action, however, without a further device, would be unavailing to produce variety since the lever motion is limited to the simple movement of up and down. Hence the idea of moving the paper at a regular rate beneath the pencil. Thus a dot could be made on the moving ribbon of paper, which, passing onward, the paper was ready to receive (after an interval more or less extended) another dot or series of dots. Thus the ability to produce dots in groups at pleasure was demonstrated, and, consequently, groups of dots expressive of various numerals were devised. In pur¬ suing the experiments with the numerals whose elements were a simple dot and space , it was perceived that, by means of the moving paper, not merely a dot could be produced at pleasure, but if the magnet was kept charged while the paper was in movement, the pencil produced a line long in proportion to the time in which the magnet was charged. This fact introduced a third element for combination, to produce variety in the groups, indicating letters as well as numerals, to wit: the line or dash; so that dots, spaces , and lines in any variety of combination were at command for forming a code of signs. Hence originated what is now universally recognized as the Morse code.”

In the arrangement of the alphabet it was desired that no letter should occupy more than five dots, or nine units in length; and none of them, with the single exception of the letter J, ex¬ ceeds that number. Another principle was specially observed, that of the letters occurring most frequently in the English language, were therefore composed of the fewest and shortest elements. The letter E is thus represented by a single dot; the I and T within the space of two dots or three units, and so on. The numerals were comprised within the value of six dots, or eleven units, to distinguish them more readily from the letters.

The dot , the unit of length in the alphabet, though in reality a short line, representing the letter E, is produced by a firm downward movement of the key-lever, immediately succeeded i6 by a quick upward motion. The combined duration of these movements should about equal the time occupied in pronounc¬ ing the word //, care being taken not to delay the upward mo¬ tion, thereby prolonging the dot into a dash.

The space is produced by the upward movement of the key ; the four different kinds of spaces employed indicating the in¬ tervals or length of time the key should be raised.

The break is the instantaneous interval between the elements of a letter, produced by the quick upward and downward move¬ ment of the key, separating the dots and dashes from each other. The downward position of the key must always be taken for the commencement of the following dot or dash, comprising a let¬ ter. It must be continually borne in mind that every character not containing a space, must be compact, and not open and disjointed, so as to entirely change the meaning by a division of one character into two or more shorter ones.

The spaced letters , six in number, viz: C, O, R, Y, Z, and &, termed spaced letters because they contain a space in the body of the letter, equal to two units or one dot and break. They were thus arranged with the intention of securing economy of space and time, but they possess the practical defect of being liable to be confounded with other letters or combinations of let¬ ters, unless very carefully transmitted. These letters cause the most telegraphic errors, although the number of words in the English language which are liable to be mistaken for each other when written in this way are very small; however, it should be remembered that words containing spaced letters must be trans¬ mitted with caution, and such letters made plain, separate and distinct.

The space betwee?i the letters of a word is equal to three units or two dots and breaks. An exception to this rule, however, is made in double E, which must contain a space nearly as great as that between words, and double L, or two or more ciphers

TELEGRAPHY.

n£ed not be spaced, as when properly made they cannot be mistaken for anything else.

In words largely composed of dots and spaced letters, the spaces should be more than usual between the letters, viz ;

Seen Erie

Receive Cicero

Uniformity of space between letters and the correct proportion of letters themselves, is of great i?nportance, especially in regard to Ta and K, An, We, and figure 1 , Me and G, Te and N, Ti and D, Th and 8, Ts and B, St and V, It and U, In and Q, At and W, and the letters Ke and J.

If properly made the ear of a practical operator will readily distinguish the telegraphic signals, however rapidly they may be transmitted. The sense of a message is often entirely changed by bad spacing.

The space between words is equal to six units or three dots and breaks . A very common fault is to run the words too closely together, which causes more trouble in reading than any other one feature of poor transmission. Uniformity of space between words is of as much importance as between the letters. However rapid the writing the various spaces should have the same rela¬ tive length. Double the usual space should be left between initials, and, in large numbers, a short space is usually made between every three figures.

1,000.--

1,500.---

18,507.-----

21,369. .....

The short dash is equal to three units or three dots. When uncombined it represents the letter T, but enters into various combinations, however, with the dot or with itself. It is pro¬ duced by holding the key down as long as it takes to make three dots, or in other words holding the key lever down long enough to pronounce the word seat , taking care that the upward movement does not occur until the final sound of the word has been fully completed. In the attempt to write fast the tendency is to make the dash too short; this should be carefully guarded against with the utmost vigilance.

The long dash is equal to six units or six dots. When used as an initial or when joined with other letters, it always repre¬ sents L; but when found with figures it is always a cipher. The long dash is never used in combination. The original intention was to use a longer dash for the cipher, prolonging it so as to occupy the time required for nine dots, but practice has made no difference in them. The general tendency is to make the L dash too short, even by advanced students and practical opera¬ tors, thereby causing many errors through misinterpretation for M or double T. It is better to make the L dash a little too long than too short, as then it cannot be mistaken.

SPECIAL NOTICE.

In telegraphic manipulation the law of intervals, and length of time, is just as essential as in music. However rapid the writing the various spaces, dots, and dashes must be uniform and proportionate to each other or the characters will be imper¬ fect. The unit may vary in length according to circumstances, but the elements should always have the same relative value. For instance, in working over a long circuit, especially when wires are working hard, it is often necessary to make the dot longer perhaps than the dash is made under ordinary cir¬ cumstances. In such case the spaces and dashes should have a corresponding length. In writing, the fingers should not be removed from the key during the short intervals, but the thumb

TELEGRAPHY.

should pull up gently on the button when the spaces or breaks occur.

Each character of the alphabet should be thoroughly im¬ pressed on the memory without reference to the position of other letters before commencing to practice them. When once the principles and characters of the alphabet are thoroughly under¬ stood and impressed on the memory, so that the mind has noth¬ ing to do but attend to the mechanical movement, the process of learning at the instrument is easier and more rapidly acquired.

The following characters will be found to be the reverse of each other. They should be memorized so that each can be called to mind at will without hesitation:

A-and N-, B-and V-, C-and R-,

D --and U —— G-and W-, J-- and

Comma-, Q-and X-, Z-and &-,

and figure 4,-and 8-.

Section IV. Exercises In Manipulation

After the student has attained proficiency in the elementary principles, the following exercises should be practiced in regular order. Each character repeated over and over until it can be made correctly at will. In no case should the student attempt the practice of the letters in alphabetical order; neither should he endeavor to write his name nor any other words, until he has thoroughly mastered these exercises. In the first exercise dashes are given, in order that the habit of writing firmly may be acquired at the very start. When the first exercise consists of dots, the student is liable to form a habit of making short, light dots, or “clipping,” which he will find very difficult to overcome. Firm, steady sending should be attained at any expense of time and practice. The prevailing idea among beginners, is that it is an easy matter to learn to send, and that rapidity in sending, and proficiency in receiving, or reading by sound, is all that is re¬ quired, hence neglect the necessary careful practice to attain proficiency in sending, but instead acquire a careless habit by attempting to send too fast, with an utter disregard of uniformity and proportion of the characters to each other. An excellent rule for beginners is to limit their sending to one-third 7 nore than they can receive by sound and never to attempt to send faster.

As it is better not to practice the alphabet in regular order the letters are placed in the following exercises in groups, each of which forms an exercise, which should be practiced until thoroughly mastered before commencing the next. Nearly every new beginner has his particularly hard letter to overcome, and finds it necessary to keep practicing on it for hours to train his fingers to make it correctly.

In order to make the letters correctly, perfect control of the use of the key is very desirable, hence the fingers should be trained to its use, and each exercise repeated over and over again until the finger joints seem to relax, and perfect control of the key is gained.

FIRST EXERCISE.

DASHES IN SUCCESSION.

Commence by making a succession of dashes, first at the rate of about one per second, which may be afterwards grad¬ ually increased to two or three. Special care must be taken to make the break between the dashes as short as possible. If a full movement be employed, the dashes cannot be too close to each other. The tendency is always to introduce too much space between the dashes ; great care must be taken to over-

TELEGRAPHY.

come this, remembering that every character not containing a space must be compact and not open and disjointed.

Separate dashes representing the letter T, and L, or cipher. Do not make T too long, or L too short.

SECOND EXERCISE.

DOTS IN SUCCESSION.

Commence by making a succession of dots with as much regularity as possible, at the rate of about five per second, in¬ creasing the speed as skill is acquired, until they are produced with the regularity of clock-work, and of definite and uniform duration. The tick of a watch or clock will assist in doing this.

Separate dots representing the letter E.

THIRD EXERCISE.

DASH LETTERS.

T M 5 L or cipher.

In practicing this exercise care should be taken to proportion the short and long dashes accurately, and in making the char¬ acters which consist of more than one dash special care must be taken that they follow each other as closely as possible, and that the final dash in each letter should exactly equal the preceding ones. Beginners usually make the final dash too short.

FOURTH EXERCISE.

DOT LETTERS.

Practice these separately until the right number of dots can be made. Let the dots be of equal length; beginners are very liable to prolong the last dot into a dash. This may be avoided by making the last dot with a movement seemingly quicker than that employed for the others. When each signal can be made perfectly, and represented exactly by the right number of dots, write them in succession a number of times forward .and back¬ ward, making each but once before proceeding to the next.

FIFTH EXERCISE.

A DASH CLOSELY FOLLOWED BY A DOT REPRESENTING THE LETTER N.

This exercise will be found more difficult. Beginners are . liable to shorten the dash and lengthen the dot, producing the letter A. But the greatest obstacle to be overcome is the ten¬ dency to prolong the break, thus producing Te. Remember that the downward position of the key must be taken as the starting point for the dot. The movement may be timed by the pronunciation of ?iine-ty slowly, dwelling on the first syllable somewhat.

SIXTH EXERCISE.

A DOT WITH A DASH CLOSELY FOLLOWING REPRESENTING THE LETTER A.

In this exercise there is a strong tendency to separate the dot from the dash by a prolonged interval, and also to make the dot too long and the dash much too short. The movement may be timed by pronouncing the word against with a strong accent upon the last syllable. The final sound (st) should represent the upward movement terminating the dash.

TELEGRAPHY.

SEVENTH EXERCISE.

SPACED LETTERS.

These are termed spaced letters, and require great care to make them correctly. The space should be just double that ordinarily used between the elements of a letter. The usual tendency is to make it too great. It should only be sufficient to distinguish these characters from I, S, and H.

EIGHTH EXERCISE.

DASH, WITH DOTS, IN SUCCESSION.

N D B 8

Having thoroughly mastered the preceding exercises, the stu¬ dent will have no difficulty in forming the above characters. Make them as in I, S, H, and P, prolonging the first dot. Avoid leaving any space between them, and be careful not to make the last dot a dash.

NINTH EXERCISE.

DOTS, WITH A DASH IN SUCCESSION.

A U V 4

The usual tendency to make too much space between the dot and dash in the above letters may be avoided by making them * as if prolonging the final dot in I, S, H, and P. Counting the dots and prolonging the last one is of aid in practicing this exer¬ cise. Always make the dots close together, and let the dash fol¬ low the dots as closely as possible. Avoid making the dash too short.

TENTH EXERCISE.

CHARACTERS GROUPED TOGETHER.

IANSUDHV BP

4 §

These should be practiced in groups, as arranged in this exer¬ cise, the object being to impress on the student the difference in the characters thus grouped together.

ELEVENTH EXERCISE.

DASHES AND DOTS IN MIXED. COMBINATION, EACH COMMENCING WITH A

DASH.

Special care must be taken to make these characters com¬ pact, and the dashes to correspond in length. K and J, are generally considered the most difficult letters in the alphabet. The tendency is to separate K into N T, and J into double N. This may be overcome by forming a close combination of T A for K, and T F for J, and figure 9 may be formed from T U r and interrogation from T Q. Do not make D for K. Drill upon this exercise until perfection is attained.