École normale supérieure; an historical sketch

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ICOLE NORiALE SOPEBIEORE

AN HISTORICAL SKETCH

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DE- PARTMENT OF LITERATURE, SCIENCE AND THE ARTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, JUNE, 1904.

PROFESSOB OF EDUCATION IN TEACHERS

COLLEGE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF

NORTH DAKOTA.

That Keen Critic, Impartial Judge and Sane Writer of Educational Literature, this little Sketch is gratefully inscribed.

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Table Of Contents

INTRODUCTION i-3

CHAPTER I 3-9 Educational Activity During the French Revolution

Prior to the Revolution all educational activity in the hands of the church (3).— The National Assembly assumes full charge of education (4). — Existing schools closed and institutions swept away (4).— The importance of the question realized and the difificult problem of construction attacked (4). The work of the National Assembly— the report of Talleyrand—referred to the next assembly (6).— The Legislative Assembly disregards the bequest and presents its own contribution in the rep'ort of Condorcet (b). — The contribution of the National Convention — the bill of Dounou — much inferior, theoretically, to former ones (7). — Comments and summary. Permanent gain— the clear grasping of the fundamental ideas of national education (7-9).

CHAPTER II 9-14 Establishment of the Normal School

General mention (9). — Historical references to normal school activity prior to the Revolution — Demia, LaSalle, Rolland (9). — Lakanal's report and recommendation — Oct. 26, 1794 (lo-ii). — The bill as passed (12-13). — Discussion prior to the passing (13-14). — General forecast. Selection of the Faculty (14).

CHAPTER III 14-17 Organization and Opening of the Normal School

Gathering of students (14). — Function of school and general program (14).— General management as outlined by Lakanal and Deleyre (16).— Opening (16).— Studentry (16-17).

CHAPTER IV 17-24 The Work of the Normal School

The work begun (17). — General confusion characteristic of the work of the early weeks (18-19).— The instruction, both in matter and method, very inappropriate (19-20).— Criticisms lead to official investigation (20).— Report of investigating committee, given by Dounou (20-21). — Decree of suppression (21).— Summary of the work done (21-22).— The "Journal" (22-23). — Estimates of the value of the experiment by Compayre, Barante, and Biot (23-24).

CHAPTER V 24-29 Reorganization under Napoleon

Educational situation following the Revolution. Dounou's bill of 1795 not in full operation. Dissatisfaction (24- 25).— Meeting of Councils General. Decree of 1806 making education a function of the State (25).— Organization of the Imperial University. The Decree of 1808 (25-26).— Reestablishment of the Normal School. The Decree (26).— Completion of the organization in matters of detail: expenses, officials and general disciplinary regulations (27-28) .—Analysis and explanation of restrictive measures (28-29).

CHAPTER VI 29-34 The Normal School from 18 10 to 1830

Normal School affiliated with the Paris Faculties instead of with the Special Schools as planned (29-30).— The reflex influence of the two (30).— Studies. Details as to the first vears (30-31).— Napoleon's plans not fully carried out— a wider scope given (30-31).— Effects of Restoration— a freer life and a broader outlook (31-32).— Criticized as a "nest of liberalism" (32).— Ordinance of 1821 creating "partial normal schools" (32).— Suppression of Normal School (32).— Reestablishment in 1826 (33).— Revolution of 1830 gives new life (34).

CHAPTER VII 35-46 Reorganisation: Work from 1830 to 1848

Foundation laying (35).— Admission (35).— Courses of Study, Section of Letters (37-39) ; Section of Science (39-40- Aggregation (41-42).— Faculty. Buildings (42-44).— Pedagogical Aspects (44-46).— Discipline (46).

CHAPTER Vni • 47-55

The Normal School from 1830 to the Rcorganizaiion of the Present Time —

Interesting topics that must be passed by (47-48). — Brief resume (48).— General outline of Period (48).— Gratuity (49). Aggregation (49-50).— Admission (50-51).— Curriculum (51-52).— Buildings (52).— Discipline (52-53).— Laboratories (53-54)- — Breadth of Scope (54-55)-

CHAPTER IX 55-58 Reorganization now in Progress

Development of the ficole Normale into a university rather than a Normal School (55).— Reason for change of characters-pedagogical instruction not being demanded, the emphasis was placed elsewhere (56). — Increasing valuation of pedagogical science makes another change necessary (56). Reorganization. Incorporation of the Normal School into the Sorbonne, becoming its Pedagogical Department 56-57)-

Bibliography 58

Introduction

M. Guizot, in his History of Civilization. i has put forth the proud claim that France has ever been a sort of clearing-house for European ideas. He has claimed, for example, that before a new idea or principle of civilization could be accepted or made operative in the other European countries it must first have received the endorsement o£ France. Napoleon's assertion that a revolution in France is sure to be foUow^ed by revolutions in other European countries is to the point. Whether or not the boast could be sustained as a whole it is certainly true that many instances could be cited which would seem, at least, to give it color.

It is not my purpose either to defend or challenge the statement beyond calling attention 'to the fact that for as much of truth as may be found within it there are many good and sufficient causes. The simple matters of soil, climate and mere geographical location, those most formative factors in the development of any people, have here exerted all their wonted influence; so that thus located and thus supplied, throwing out, for the moment, all other considerations, this people must needs have occupied a very commanding position in the onward march of the centuries. And it has. In peace and in war, in political experiments and in social theories, in theological controversies and in educational practices, she has ever played so strong a hand that the eyes of the world have followed her, always with interest, many times with wonder, and often with profit.

In this introduction it is my purpose merely to prepare the way for an intelligent comprehension of the subject under discussion. From the general mention already made I now pass to very hasty survey of some of the most striking features connected with her educational leadership.

In this field the activities of her people may not seem so stirring, they may not have made so much noise, as in some of the others, but yet they have been far reaching and telling. Before the beginning of the Christian era the present soil of France harbored and largely supported the most celebrated seats of learning west of Rome. I find Henry Bernard saying that in these early days Marseilles, at the mouth of the Rhone, was known far and wide as "the dispenser of Greek culture, not only to its citizens, but to disciples from all parts of Gaul and Germany." - He also calls attention to the value of the educational work of the Druids. He says, likewise, that during the early centuries of the Christian era and up to the very downfall of the Roman power, public educational institutions were found in nearly all of the larger towns of the present France. And after the decline of the pagan schools their places were taken by those of Christian origin and conducted in the monasteries and cathedrals.

^Guizot: History of Civilization, i: i6. ^Barnard: National Education, (1872) p. 197.

Later, when, under the repressing influences of asceticism, bigotry and church domination, the dark night-clouds of ignorance had settled down and so nearly succeeded in putting an end to intellectual progress, it was from the home of the Franks that the first rays of light and promise shone forth. Thru the painstaking and intelligent efforts of the great Alcuin, well worthy of being the co-worker of the great Charles, these clouds were lifted. And a few centuries later, with her people thus more nearly ready, we see the Mediaeval Universities arise. They develop, play their large part in the upbuilding of this interesting people, and then either pass away or form the basis of more modern institutions. France likewise furnished a most favorable environment for another celebrated institution of these Middle Age centuries — the Teaching Congregation. From their founding up to the early days of the Revolution, when, with a wave of the hand, as it were, they were apparently swept away, nearly every one of the forty or more orders was successfully active in the educational work of France.

The normal school movement, which is now recognized the world over as one of the most fundamental agencies in the development of any nation or people, had its origin in the French mind and first sunk its roots into the French soil. Educational France may well take pride in Demia and LaSalle. True, this work did not attract very wide attention, nor did it continue save among the Congregations, but the institution has scarcely once lapsed either in theory or practice.

The pages of history cannot show a parallel to the educational activity put forth during the great Revolution. With what a grasp of fundamental principles, with what a breadth of view as to the importance of the question, with what a clearness of vision as to the far reaching consequences of the legislation in hand, and with what a clear recognition of the absolute necessity of wise legislation, did the statesmen of the Revolution try to handle the educational problem! How keenly they felt that it meant life or death to their State ! Well and trul;^ could Lakanal say: "Hopes the most brilliant, expectations the most universal were those of a new plan of education which should place the nation in a position to exercise worthily that sovereignty which had been rendered to her." ^ And as to results achieved thru that agitation and that multitudinous and contradictory legislation: they certainly cannot be summed up in M. Thery's word, "negation", nor in M. Duruy's, equally fruitless, "chimera". Rather does Compayre more intelligently sum up the situation when he says: "For every impartial observer it is certain that the Revolution opened a new era in education." *

It is true, again, that the advanced positions were not maintained tho "a new era in education" was opened. This was due, however, not to the falsity of the conclusions reached but to the repressive hand of monarchical power which never wants an educated people. Note how eagerly and how quickly and how intelligently educational reform has arisen every time the power of that hand has been stayed for a moment. This is strikingly seen after the governmental changes of 1830 and of 1871, and it can be discerned, even, following those of 1815 and of 1848. And the gains they have made have not once been wholly lost, so that, on the whole, progress has continued, now slowly, now rapidly, but always continued, until today France is second to no country in the comprehensiveness of her educational system or in the desire that her every son shall receive its benefits.

The institution which it has been my profit to study and which it is now my pleasure to attempt to describe is an example of the pioneer

^Hippeau: L'Instruction en France, pendant la Revolution, p. 411. *Compayre: History of Pedagogy, p. 363.

work done by this interesting people. The "fi'Cole Normale", since 1845 called the "£cole Normale Superieure", is one of the most interesting educational experiments ever tried, one which no other nation has ever tried, or probably ever will try, but one which France has somehow found, in spite of manifest contradictions, to be the very corner-stone of her educational progress. Note the salient features of this school and its great dissimilarity to all others will be at once appreciated.

It was not at first, nor has it once been since, an ordinary normal school whose function it is to prepare young men and women for teaching children how to read and write. Not this, difficult as it always is, has been the problem of the "fi'Cole Normale". Something very different. Indeed, its function is caught sight of in the very name it has borne, "L'ficole Normale," "The Normal School," "The Superior Normal School". In its first conception it was to form and produce not merely teachers, but teachers of teachers, men themselves capable of directing the work of normal schools. Later, and during the greater portion of its history, there has been added to that first work another, thought by some to be greater yet, even the preparation of the teachers for the colleges of France — college professors.

For students the "ficole Normale" has taken the choicest and keenest young men of the entire land, already well equipped, academically, for honorable positions in life. It has provided for these the most learned masters and best teachers to be found. It has placed at their disposal the best equipment in library and laboratory facilities that money could obtain. It has made them interns, and thus has effectually kept away from them all distractions of the outside world and given them an opportunity for uninterrupted application and unrestricted search for the truth. As students it has made them free spirits roaming at will under wise and efficient guidance. It has therefore been able to turn out men of mark, men who have distinguished themselves and rendered invaluable service to their country not only in the one profession of teaching for which they have been especially fitted, but in every department and activity of the nation's higher, freer life.

Chapter I. Educational Activity During The French Revolution

Before recording the actual founding of the institution under study it will be necessary to state a few facts as to existing conditions which really led to its founding.

In spite of the fact already stated that from the very beginning the French people have paid much attention to educational matters, and even that important educational movements have originated among them, it is true that prior to the Revolution the education of the French people had ever been in the hands of the church. By means of the various "teaching congregations", notably the Jesuits, Christian Brothers and Oratorians, the great educational work of the country was being done. Not till Revolutionary times did France as a nation really try, strongly and efifectively, to face the problem of the education of her people.

True, Ion"- before this, dissatisfied with the work of the church, fearing that thru it France was being bound hand and foot by that ever active and purposeful ecclesiastical organization, many of her far-seeing statesmen had put forth efforts looking toward a change. For some time, it will be remembered, the Parliamentarians had striven to shake off what they thought to be an incubus and in 1762 really thought they had accomplished their purpose when the King signed the decree expelling the Jesuits from France. But this was only half a victory, and short-lived at that. And it touched but one phase of the great educational problem.

It is true that from time to time as the centuries passed the government did put forth educational activity, even that some worthy institutions were founded and maintained as, for example, the University of Paris and the College of France. But all such acts simply touched, as it were, the fringes of the garment. Up to the very opening of the great struggle the educational fabric itself was in the hands of the church. But no longer.

No immediate action was taken hostile to existing educational practices, yet the National Assembly did at the very start begin the discussion of educational problems in such a way as to spread alarm thruout all the teaching organizations. It assumed the right to handle the whole question and to plan an organization as tho nothing were being done. All this greatly distressed the workers and had the effect of practically closing existing schools. To quote from Barnard:

"The universities, constrained particularly in their moral life, deprived of this consciousness of their future, one of the primordial elements of the existence of institutions, as of man, died, so to speak, a voluntary death." 1 And what was true of the universities was almost equally true of the teaching congregations.

Finally, the long expected blows came. On March 8th, 1893, all college properties were ordered sold and the proceeds given to the State. And in the follov.'ing September all higher institutions of France were abolished. To quote from Barnard: "So perished the ancient University of Paris, so perished the similar institutions to which it had

&cole Normale Superieiire 5

given rise; without even the nominal honor of a death sentence and without the special exertion of any power for that end." -

Educational chaos followed: One writer says, "After this event, during four years, there was neither a university nor a college in existence in all France." ^ And the situation was almost as bad in elementary as in higher education, so that it would scarce be an exaggeration to say that the Revolution at once swept out of existence every educational agency in use and that for several years there was the astounding spectacle of a nation without schools.

But such a condition could not long endure. From every quarter of France, from every class of her people, complaints poured in upon the Assemblies for what was generally considered the wanton destruction of the educational means that had been so long at their doors. Appeals also were multiplied, some for the reinstatement of the old teaching congregations, others for a new organization, but all for educational opportunities for the young of France.

Nor were the Assemblies unwilling to act. As already suggested, many of the leaders, from the very first, clearly and fully appreciated the situation and at once set to work to construct that which would not only satisfy the demands constantly being made. but. as well, furnish France with such a system of education as would continuously equip her people to play nobly, worthily and successfully the newer, larger role upon which she had just entered. They wished to make their new watchword, 'iibertv. fraternity and equality," a reality among them and wanted an educational system commensurate with its spirit and breadth.

But the problem was a vast one. They had nothing to begin with. Everything had been swept away. They had to begin at the verj' bottom. The task was herculean. And to make matters so much the worse they had never had any experience in planning am' kind of a large national undertaking. The governmental work of France had never been much in the hands of her people and now for the first time in 175 years the States General had been summoned. And as from the vantage point of today we look back upon the Revolutionary Assemblies the wonder is not that they did not act in a saner manner and accomplish greater results but rather that in dealing with so many difficult and far-reaching problems, and all new to them, they showed as much sanity as they did. The wonder is that, especially in educational matters, they could accomplish anything. It is nothing less than marvellous that a "new era in education" could result.

But even tho the men of the Revolution had had no practical legislative experience in educational matters many of them were deep, careful thinkers and all of them terribly in earnest. Some of them realized that it was a matter of life and death and their efforts at legislation clearly reveal the fact. As Dr. Payne says. "The educational legislation of the French Revolution, apparently so inconsiderate, so vacillating, and so fruitless, betrays the instinctive feeling of a nation in peril, that the only constitutional means of regeneration is universal instruction, intellectual and moral." * Realizing the immense importance to them of a sound educational system they attacked the problem with that same energy that has characterized them in all stages of their history. The matter must be handled in a tlioro. comprehensize manner. It must be looked at from all sides. France had entered upon a new

^American Quarterly Review. IX: 22. Article on "The University

of France" by Rev. Robert Baird. ^Compayre: History of Pedagogy, p. 411, in Analytical Summary by

the translator. Dr. Payne.

life. Her educational system must be new. It must contain nothing suggestive of the old order of things. The old m.onarchy must not be allowed to contribute anything, no matter how well it had served in days past. And more difficult yet, the new system must suit the majority. How difficult ! Is it any wonder that scheme after scheme was brought forward only to be rejected? that system after system was laboriously wrought out only to make place for a newer? But yet, all was not vain, the empty, formless vaporings of sentimental enthusiasts. By no means. In the early days of the Revolution Mirabeau wrote, "Those who desire that the peasant may not know how to read or write, have doubtless made a patrimony of his ignorance, and their motives are not difficult to appreciate." ^

In September, 1791, the work of the National Assembly drew to a close. It had accomplished the purpose set forth in the memorable oath taken on the 26th of June, 1789, "never to separate till the constitution of the kingdom was established and founded on a solid basis." On the 14th of September that constitution was solemnly ratified and duly signed by the King, and on the 30th the Assembly adjourned. But what had it done for the education of the people? No schools had been established, it is true, nor any systematic plan of work agreed upon. But yet, in the constitution which they hoped would ever after be the fundamental law of the land the following is found: "There shall be created and organized a svstem of public instruction, common to all citizens, gratuitous with respect to those branches of instruction which are indispensable for all men, and the establishment of which shall be gradually distributed according to the divisions of the realm." ®

For some time, under the general direction of the Committee of Public Instruction, M. de Talleyrand-perigord had been engaged on the details of a system of education that should embody the generous thought of this article.

His report was completed, accepted by the committee and, on Sept. 25th, in its name presented to the Assembly. Of this report I quote from Barnard: "The essential features of a complete system, from the knowledge necessary to constitute a useful citizen and a good man, and the amusements of the whole people, to the fine arts and the highest branches of ancient and modern literature, and the further advancement of the sciences, were discussed and arranged with a fulness and logical connection not surpassed by any similar public document in any country at that date." '' And no one, it seems to me, who will carefully read the report will dissent from Mr. Barnard's estimate. Nay, more, he will find very much that is abreast with our best thought of today. I quote a single article, the second, that shows the universality of its spirit and connects it closely with the article of the constitution already quoted: "The primary schools shall be free and open to the children of all citizens without distinction." ^

His plan embraced four distinct grades of instruction, primary schools for the rural districts, secondary schools for the villages, special and professional schools for the chief cities and sort of a University, called the National Institute, at Paris. The phase of the plan attracting and giving it its greatest popularity was the provision for rural schools in which the children of peasants and workmen, up to this time wholly unprovided for, were to enjoy educational advantages.

But the Legislative Assembly, beginning its sitting in September, in-

''Compayre: Ibid., p. 369.

^Greard: La Legislation de LTnstructicn Primaire en France, II: i.

^Greard: Ibid., p. 2.

Ecole Normale Supericure 7

stead of discussing the plan submitted, appointed its own committee and the committee its own spokesman, Condercet, and proceeded to begin the construction all over again. But not till April of the next year, 1792, was the report presented and at that time so stirring were the events transpiring, so thoroly wrought up was the whole nation that, as Buisson remarks, "the report and the five memoirs accompanying it exercised only a feeble influence on the Assembly and on public opinion." And this, too, in spite of the fact that the document was of such a character as to call from one of the foremost of the present educators of France this statement of high appreciation! "Of all the educational undertakings of the Revolution the most remarkable is that of Condorcet." ^

With this report the Legislative Assembly did practically the same that the National Assembly had already done with that of Talleyrand — it passed it on for the consideration of the next Assembly. And nothing more. Wherein, then, lay its value? In itself. For as the report of Talleyrand had been the basis of that of Condorcet, so now, Condorcet's, to use Compayre's words, "remained thruout the duration of the Convention, the widely accessible source whence the legislators of that time, like Romme, Bouquirer, and Lakanel drew their inspiration." ^

The Legislative Assembly adjourns. The National Convention meets and begins its work. Now, surely, something will be done for, as Buisson puts it, "of all the Assemblies that have governed France, the National Convention is the 6ne most fully occupied with public instruction." 1

Yes, it was occupied with thoughts on public instruction, so fully occupied that bill after bill was presented, many of them passed and some the next day recalled. Scheme after scheme was considered, some of which were wise but many containing but dreams and visions impossible of realization. But not a single primary school did the committee open and but three oi a higher order and even these, because of their extreme impracticability, were doomed to a speedy death.

It has even been urged by some that the Convention went backward, that her final enactment was much inferior to the early suggestions of the National Assembly as shown both in the constitutional provision already cited and in the systems of Talleyrand and Condorcet. That is true, the bill offered by its principal author, Dounou, and which was finally passed Oct. 25th, 1795, just before the Convention ceased its labors, omitted some of the best provisions of the earlier ones. For example, the number of rural schools was greatly reduced and they to be placed only in the most thickly populated districts. Instruction was not to be gratuitous. All that the State was to contribute toward the support of the schools were the class rooms and garden plots for the teachers. The teachers' salaries were to be wholly made up from individual tuition fees. With this as a basis no compulsory attendance was contemplated. The program of studies, too, was narrowed, in the words of Compayre, "to reading, writing, numbers and the elements of republican morality."

But let us take the circumstances into consideration. The Convention was worn out, thoroly exhausted. It contained but few superior minds. It could not appreciate the breadth and depth, the fundamental comprehensiveness, of the earlier systems. And yet it was the ruling power and its enactment must be the law of the land until superceded by another. Dounou knew all this and realizing the truth of the old saw that "half a loaf is better than no bread," proposed a

*Compayre : Ibid., p. 379.

^Buisson Dictionnaire de Pedagogic Ire. Partie, \: 520.

8 Ecolc Normalc Supericiire

system that was not so far beyond the Convention's comprehension as to make its passage impossible and its realization out of the question. And, again, doubtless he appreciated the general unpreparedness of the nation for valuing, and using a more complete system. In a word, Dounou asked for and received all that the Convention would grant and all that the people would use. And a glance at his plan, tho revealing less than the earlier promises yet reveals a decided improvement, especially in primary instruction, over general existing practices at the opening of the Revolution. And as Compayre says: "Doubtless the measure of Dounou had over all previous measures the advantage of being applied, and o'f not remaining a dead letter." -

But yet, I feel that not in the enactment alone, even tho a step in advance, are we to find the best, the ripest and most fruitful educational thought of the Revolution. Let us seek it in the conclusions not of the Revolution's decrepid old age but of its ripe manhood in the thought of Talleyrand, Condorcet and Lakanal.

Let us stop for a moment, then, and see wherein anything had been done that could be used as a basis for a "new era in education." At the dissolution of the National Convention the Revolution had been in progress for more than six years, and on the surface the only changes seemed to be of a destructive character. The existing schools had been swept away, the religious bodies, in whose hands had been practically all of elementary education, forbidden to teach, and yet nothing had been put in their places.

But tho the children were not being educated, the men of the times were, educated not in the fundamentals of reading writing and arithmetic it is true, (these they already possessed) but in the elements of educational statesmanship and legislation. As never before the attention of the leaders of thought and action thruout the whole of France had been directed to education. And thru this direction they were learning many things.

Thru long continued thought and agitation, thru discussion and debate, it had at last become a part of the consciousness of France that for her very safety there should, in the words of her first constitution, "be created and organized a system of public instruction, common to all citisens, and gratuitous zvith respect to those branches of instruction ■which are indispensable for all men." Here we have universality and gratuity clearly stated with state control and support at least implied. And another thought followed later as a natural consequence — namely, compulsory attendance. And yet, one more, a great institution of which is the subject of this study, the Normal School idea. Their grasping of this thought that "the starting point of educational reform is the instruction and inspiration of the teaching body' :' ^ that they should have recognized so clearly that, as Dr. Payne puts it, "the Normal School lies, at the very basis of national safety and prosperity," seems to me most remarkable. And it is so exceedingly significant that one of the very first real educational institutions that the convention founded was a Normal School — the "ficole Normale," to the study of which I shall shortly pass.