The dictionary of education and instruction: a reference book and manual on the theory and practice of teaching, for the use of parents, teachers, and others; based upon the Cyclopædia of education

Front matter

THE

' DICTIONARY "^^

OF

Preface

The Cyclopoedia of Education, the only publication of the kind in the English language, has now been before the public about four years, during which time this work has secured the unqualified approval of the most eminent and experienced educators and ofiicial authorities both in America and abroad. This is all the more satisfactory, as much of the commendation bestowed has resulted from a careful study and constant use of the Cyclopaedia as an educational guide.

But while the Cyclopcedia has been thus cordially welcomed and commended, a demand has been expressed, with increasing urgency, for a smaller work of a similar character, that, excluding matter of only occasional interest and value to the professional teacher, may contain solely what is of every-day need; and which maybe obtained at a moderate cost, and yet supply a large amount of information on a great variety of subjects, such as could be obtained only with considerable difficulty from large and expensive works.

To meet this demand the Dictionary of Education and Instruction is now offered to teachers and all others interested in education and instruction, — school-officers, parents, and the public in general.

The Dictionary is, in the main, a compilation of the articles embraced in only one of the eight departments contained in the Cyclopaedia ; namely, those on the Theory of Education and Instruction (Pedagogy and Didactics) which are designed to comprehend a consideration of the principles of education, in each of its departments, with practical suggestions as to the best methods of applying them both in training and instruction. To adapt this class of articles, thus reproduced from the Cyclopaedia^ to the wider use now intended, they have been, as far as seemed necessary, abbreviated, extended, or otherwise modified. In this way it is expected that the Dictionary will supply a convenient manual for study and reference not only to teachers engaged in professional work, and in teachers' institutes, but likewise in normal schools in which it is designed to serve as a text-book on Theory and Practice.

To facilitate the use of the Dictionary for this purpose, all the longer articles have been supplied with indented sub titles so as to enable the instructor to conduct recitations on the subject, either by interrogating the student, or by requiring full statements from him on any of the topics thus indicated.

The special objects designed to be attained by the publication of the i)«c<iow«rj/, more specifically stated, are: (1) to supply a brief compendium of the theory and practice of education in a series of clear and definite articles, alphabetically arranged so as to be easily referred to, or systematically studied; (2) to encourage in this way the study by teachers of the

IT

principles and practice of their profession, thus giving to the work of education a greater degree of intelligence and efficiency; (3) to afford a convenient class manual of pedagogy for use in normal schools and teachers' institutes as the basis of a course of instruction in principles and methods, not necessarily superseding other valuable manuals differently arranged, but accompanying and strengthening them; (4) to supply, at a small cost, to every teacher that portion of the Cyclopoedia which is of especial value in practical education, reserving this larger work for occasional reference, particularly when information regarding educational history, biography, and statistics is needed; and (5) to supply a useful hand-book to parents in the home education of their children.

Of the character of the articles contained in this work but little need be here said, as they have already secured the highest encomiums for their philosophical and professional correctness, practical character, and literary excellence. This indeed was to have been anticipated, the writers being all practical educators of long experience and distinction in their profession. Among the contributors to the Cydopcedia whose articles have been drawn upon for use in this volume the following may be especially mentioned: Professors Edw. Olney, of the University of Michigan; Francis A. March, of Lafayette College; David B. Scott, of the College of the City of New Tork; E. H. Day, of the New York Normal College; Charles T. HiMES, of Dickinson College, and J. M. D. Meiklejohn, Professor of Education in the College of St. Andrews, Scotland; also James Donaldson, LL. D., Kector of the Edinburgh High School; Thomas F. Harrison and Norman A. Calkins, Assistant Superintendents of Schools in the City of New York; and also the editors, Henry Kiddle, for many years chief Superintendent of the schools of the City, and for several years principal of the Normal School in the city of New York; and Professor A. J. Schem, also one of the Assistant Superintendents of the New York City Schools, and long and favorably known for his extensive scholarship, literary attainments, and numerous encyclopaedic, statistical, and other works.*

Special attention is invited to the valuable list of educational works for professional study and reference prepared especially for the Dictionary by W. H. Payne, M. A., Professor of the Science and the Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan.

The hope is here expressed that this book will be favorably received, and that it will prove the instrument of much good in elevating the teacher's profession, and in disseminating correct information in regard to the principles of education and instruction.

New York, July 1st, 1881.

* Prof. Schem deceased May 22d, while this work was passing through the press.

ABACUS (Gr. af3a^, a slab or board), a piece of school apparatus, used to facilitate the teaching of children to count, and perform other simple arithmetical operations. Various forms of the abacus are employed as counting or adding machines.

A-B-C BOOK, a primer, or little book used to learn the alphabet and its simplest combinations, with the most rudimental lessons in reading. (See Horn-Book.)

A-B-C METHOD. See Alphabet Method.

ABECEDARIAN. This word, formed from the names of the first four letters of the alphabet, is generally used to denote a pupil who has not advanced beyond the most elementary stage of school or book education, that is, who is learning A B C, or the alphabet. The name has been sometimes applied to one engaged in teaching the alphabet. (See Reading, and Word 51ethod.)

A-B-C SHOOTERS (Germ. ABC-Schutzen),Tpvii^ils of those scholastic vagrants who, during a certain period of the middle ages, and even later, used to wander through many parts of Germany, giving instruction to such pupils as they could pick up, who accompanied them in their journeyings. These pupils were often obliged to purloin food, fowls, etc., to supply their masters' wants, and hence were called, partly in derision of their elementary knowledge, A-B-C Shooters — shoot, in their parlance, being the slang word for steal.

ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity in the attendance of pupils belonging to a school. The number of school sessions from which a pupil was absent, as compared with the number at which he was f d present, during any particular period, gives the absenteeism of joun . ^j^^ pupil for that period. The average daily attendance of pupils divided by the average daily enrollment — the "average number belonging" — shows the percentage of attendance; and this subtracted from 100 gives, of course, the percentage of absenteeism. Within certain limits, this is a criterion of efficiency of management and instruction, since teachers who interest their pupils necessarily secure a more re- Test of g^iar attendance than those who fail in this respect. Where the e^fficiency. ^^^j^g f^j. computing the degree of absenteeism is the average enrollment, and where regularity of attendance is made a test of efficient management, teachers will be more careful to keep the number of pupils on the rolls as little as possible above the average attendance. Hence, to render this test reliable, a uniform rule should be followed in the Uniform (jigeharging of pupils for non-attendance. Such a rule has been ' " ^^* adopted in many cities of the Union, any pupil's name being invariably dropped from the roll after a certain number of days of absence, however caused. 'I'his is based on the principle that irregular attendance is not only of no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive injury to the other pupils of the school or class, and is, moreover, a serious hindrance and embarrassment to the teacher.

2 ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE — ACADEMY

ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These terms have a very important application in many departments of practical education. Abstract DefinUion. ^^^ reference to general ideas, or the ideas of qualities considered ' apart from the things to which they belong; concrete, to those which are only conceived as belonging to particular objects or substances. Thus, if we speak of a man, a horse, a tree, etc., we use abstract or general ideas; for we are not thinking of any particular object of the class, but only of the assemblage of qualities or characteristics that especially belong to^ all the members of the class. But when we mention such names as Cicero, Washington, John Smith, etc., we have in our mind a conception of the characteristics that distinguish those persons from all other men. Thus, the expressions Jive x>ouncls, a true statement , an honest man represent concrete ideas; the words five, truth, honesty, abstract ones. Distinction "^^^ immature minds of young children employ to a great in educa- extent concrete ideas, and hence the instruction addressed tion. especially to them should deal principally with these. As the mind advances, it becomes more and more occupied with abstract conceptions, whicih constitute the material for all the higher forms of thought and ratiocination,

ACADEMY (Gr. 'AKaSI/juia or ' AKaSr^jueia) was originally the name of Origin. ^ pleasure ground near Athens, and was said to be so called after Academus, a local hero at the time of the Trojan war. Its shady walks became a favorite resort for Plato: and, as he was accustomed to lecture here to his pupils and friends, the school of philosophers which Academy ^^^^ founded by him was called the Acade77iic School, or mereof Flato ^^ ^^^ Academij. During the middle ages the term was bub little used for learned institutions; but, after the revival of classical studies in the 15th century, it again became frequent. In a wider sense, it was sometimes applied to higher institutions of learning in How g^^^ral- Gradually, however, its use was, in most countries,

applied restricted to special schools, as academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, of fine arts, and, especially, of music. In England and the United States, the national high schools for the education of military and naval officers are called academies. I'hus, England has the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and the United States, the Military Academy at West Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. In the United States, the name has also been assumed by a large number of secondary schools, which are designed to prepare their pupils for colleges, or to impart a general knowledge of the common and higher branches of education. ArrDlied to • "^^^ ^^™^ academy is also employed to designate an assolearned ^^^^^^^ ^^ learned men for the advancement of science and societies. ^^*' ^^^® ^^ ^^^^^ associations are of an entirely private character, others have been founded by the state. The first academy of this kind was the Museum of Alexandria, in Egypt, which was founded by Ptolemy Soter. The academies constituting the Institute of France are among the most important of the kind in the world. The Academie frangaise is the highest authority upon every thing relating to the niceties of the French language, to grammar, and the publication of the French classics. The Academie des inscriptions et belles leitres em-

ACCOMPLISHMENTS — AFFECTATION" 3

braces among the objects of its attention comparative philology. Like the French Institute, the academies in the capitals of Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Russia, and other countries, have gradually become great national centers for the promotion of science and art; but no such centralization has been effected in Italy, Germany, England, or the United States. In the United States of America, there are also a number of learned societies to which the name academy^ in the sense used on the continent of Europe, has been applied.

ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as contrasted with culture, refers to those educational acquirements which fit a person for certain special activities, while culture has reference to the general improvement of the character or mental faculties. Hence the expression "external accomplishments," or "ornamental accomplishments," such as skill in foreign languages, music, drawing, painting, dancing, etc. (See Culture.) ^ ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowledge must be, to a certain extent, the scope of every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the primary object; but, in the earlier stages of education, it is generally secondary, the educative value of the process taking precedence of the practical importance of the knowledge communicated. The acquisition of new ideas must always, more or less, improve the mind by affording additional material for the exercise of its various faculties; but, in education, what particular faculties are concerned in the study of any subject or branch of knowledge, is a matter of paramount importance, and therefore should never be lost sight of by the teacher. Where this is disregarded, instruction is apt to degenerate into mere rote-teaching; and the teacher will often rest satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formulae of knowledge, without evincing the acquisition of new ideas, on which alone the improvement of the mind depends.

ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. aKpoaixariKog, to be heard, designed for hearing only), a name originally applied to the esoteric teachings of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to designate such as were confined to their immediate hearers, and not committed to writing. Later, the term has been applied to a system of instruction in which the teacher speaks and the pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of course, presupposes scholars of a certain maturity of age and of considerable progress in intellectual culture. It forms the basis of the lecture system.

AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real, genuine, and natural, is carefully to be guarded against in the education of the young. In certain peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to the formation of habits of affectation in manners and speech. This tendency, however, ra.rely shows itself at an early age. Children generally yield to their natural impulses, and do not assume or leign what they do not feel, or, to use a common expression, "put on airs". Their mode of training, however, may tend to this, particularly if they are forced to assume an unnatural mode of expression in phraseology or pronunciation, in the attempt to make them excessively precise in such matters. Some styles of reading and elocution may lead to this characteristic; and hence the importance of adopting methods that, in all respects, correspond to the prevailing usage. The standard of the educator should, in every respect, comport with the ease, grace, simplicity, and beauty that belong to what is

4 - AGE

natural; and every tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be promptly and sternly repressed. Locke (in Thoughts concerning Education) says: "Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much better than an artificial ungracefulness, and such studied ways of being ill-fashioned. The want of an accomplishment, or some defect in our behavior, coming short of the utmost gracefulness, often scapes observation; but affectation in any part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to our defects, and never fails to make us to be taken notice of, either as wanting sense or wanting sincerity."

AGE, in Education. The life of man has been variously divided into periods, or ages. Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Macro- . bins ten, different ages, while others have i)referred a division

Feriods -^^^^ ^^^^ g-^^ seven, or eight. With regard to the education of '' ' man, one great turning-point stands forth so conspicuously, that teachers at all times have chosen it as a broad line of demarcation, into whatever number of periods they have thought it proper to divide human life. This turning-point in life is the period when man passes from the age of youth into that of viriHty. The physical development at Turning- ^j-^jg ^-^^^^ j^^^g become complete; in social life both sexes have life attained majority; and the education of the young man or woman for the career that has been selected, is, in the main, concluded. Up to this time, the education of man is conducted by others, chiefly parents and teachers; henceforward, he is expected to educate himself, and to assume the education of others.

During the period of life when man is dependent upon others for his

education, three different ages are broadly distinguished, — childhood, boy-

hood or girlhood, and youth. These are marked, in the physical

ares development of the body, by the shedding of teeth, the entrance

of puberty, and the setting in of virility. The process of mental

development in these three ages is as different as the physical basis ; and,

accordingly, each of them demands a peculiar pedagogical and didactical

treatment.

Childhood, which embraces the first seven years of life, is characterized by the rapid growth and development of the organs of the body. At the Childhood ^?® ^^ seven a child weighs about six times as much as at its birth, and it has attained one half of the stature, and about one third or one fourth of the weight of the grown man. The mind is, during this period, more receptive than self- active ; the only manifestations of self-activity being found in the efforts to retain and arrange the impressions which have been received. All pedagogical influence upon the pupil in this age can be only of a preparatory character. The body must be guarded against injuries, and must liave opportunities for a vigorous and manifold development. The mind must be preserved from debasing, weakening, or over-exciting influences, and must be kept open for any thing that is conducive to the development of its faculties ; and, in order not to become sated and confused, it must learn to distinguish what is important from what is unimportant. As the child is thoroughly dependent upon the educator and unable to direct its own exertions, it should be made to understand as clearly as possible, that any opposition of its own will to that of its educators can be followed by only evil consequences. It should,

AGE 5

therefore, be taught obedience, but not obedience through fear, for fear has a repressive influence upon the development of the mental faculties, but an obedience springing from confidence in the superior wisdom and experience of the teacher, and from love produced by his kindness. The natural educators of the child are the parents, especially the mother; but, toward the close of this age, systematic teaching by a professional teacher begins. Legislation in regard to the school age differs considerably in different countries. In some, children are sent to the public schools when they are four years of age ; in others, not until they are seven. Of course, instruction at such an age must be limited to the most elementary rudiments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. The method should be thoroughly adapted to the mental condition of the child, and modern educators are agreed in recognizing the importance of object teaching for the first stages of a child's instruction. A novel mode of instruction, specially intended as introductory to the regular primary school, is the kindergarten, founded by Froebel. The astonishing rapidity with which it has spread through all the countries of the civilized world, and found admission into educational systems otherwise radically at variance, seems to prove it to be a great improvement in elementary education. (See Kindeegarten.) Boyhood or girlhood embraces the time from the 7th to the 14th year

of age. In the development of the body, this age is characterized

Boyhood -^y ^YiQ appearance of the permanent teeth, by the completed

irlhood g^^"^^'^^^ ^^ ^^^ brain, and by the first consciousness of sexual

difference. Boys and girls long for the free and frequent exercise of their muscular systems. At the beginning of this age, girls like to take an active part in the plays of the boys ; but they soon show a preference for more quiet occupations and less publicity ; while, on the other hand, boys manifest an increased interest in noisy and wild sports. It is among the prime duties of the educators of this age, to keep the development of the natural desires and aspirations of the two sexes within the right channels. The minds of boys and girls afford many proofs of independent thought and activity. The company of adults is not sought for by them as eagerly as before, bub they feel entire satisfaction in the society of children of their own age. They think, as yet, little of the realities of life and of their future careers ; but their plays give more evidence, than before, of plan, serious thought, and perseverance, and generally indicate the faculties with which they have been most strongly endowed ; each child, in this way, foreboding to some extent its future career. It is of great importance that the educator should not only understand the peculiar nature of this age in general, but that he should thoroughly know the character of each individual ; for the faults which are peculiar to this age are best overcome in individual cases, if the educator knows how to make the right kind of appeal to those good qualities of his pupils which are most strongly developed. In arranging a course of instruction for this age, it must be specially remembered that the minds of boys and girls are predominantly receptive. The memory readily receives and faithfully retains impressions ; and this, therefore, is the right time for learning a foreign language and geographical and historical facts. The independence of mind peculiar to this age shows itself at the same time in the growth of imagination, which awakens in the boy a lively interest in aU that is great and extraordinary in history. On many

6 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES

questions relating to the education proper for this age, educators still differ. Prominent among these questions, are, whether the two sexes should be educated separately or conjointly, to what extent the same course of instruction should be prescribed for both, whether special studies should be begun at tliis age, or whether the entire course should be obligatory upon all the children of a school.

The age of i/nuth extends from the beginning of puberty to the com- „ ,, plete development of sexuality, or from the fourteenth to about the twenty-iirst year of age. At this time the growth of the body is completed ; young men and women become aware of their special duties of life and of the difference in the careers upon which they are respectively to enter. The time of study is drawing to its close ; the entrance into active life is at hand. Among the lower classes of society, this transition occurs at the beginning of this age ; and the only increase of knowledge that is accessible to most persons of these classes must be derived from evening schools, public lectures, and reading ; while those of tlie wealthier classes, and all who wish to fit themselves for any of the learned professions, now enter upon the special studies of those professions, or finish the general studies of the preceding age. Toward the close of this period, if not earlier, the preparation for entering public life is completed, or an actual entrance into life begins.

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. It is only within the last fourteen years that any general and systematic effort has been made tongres- ^^ ^j-^g United States to furnish facilities for acquiring a thorough . . ^ scientific and practical education in agriculture. In 1862, Congress gave to the several states and territories land scrip to the amount of 30,000 acres for each senator and representative, on the condition that each state or territory, claiming the benefit of this act, should, within five years from its passage, "provide not less than one college, which should receive for its endowment, support, and maintenance the interest of all moneys derived from the sale of the aforesaid scrip or lands. " It was further required that " the leading object" of these colleges " should be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes, in the several pursuits and professions of life." Up to 1865, the agricultural college of Lansing, Mich., was the only one in the United States in which students could pursue a college course fowuM ^^^^"g^d ^"cl adapted to meet the wants of those who might desire, in after years, to engage in agriculture. Since that time,, some colleges have been organized — a large proportion of them from parts of universities — which are largely devoted "to teaching such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts.

" As a general . rule, no pains have been spared by these colleges to furnish all tionlind' *^^ facilities for pursuing a college course at the least possible exequipmeni. P^^^^- Manual labor is required in many of the colleges ; in others, it is optional. Students' labor is paid for at various rates. Liberal state appropriations have been made, which have been largely expended in erecting buildings. The amount of private donations is very large. The late Ezra CorneU gave $700,000 to the university that bears his name, and the total amount of private donations to this single institution is not less than ^1,400,000, of which the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts have received their due proportion. The equipment includes laboratories, workshops, etc., serving, directly or indirectly, to illustrate and teach all the subjects relating to agriculture, as follows: mechanical laboratories or workshops, furnished with tools for working in iron and wood, and sometimes with engines, planers, turning-lathes, drilling-machines, saws, and other necessary but less expensive tools; physical laboratories, most of them furnished with apparatus for illustrating the subjects of mechanics, electricity, magnetism, heat, acoustics, and optics. Nearly all these colleges have well equipped chemical laboratories ; and several of them furnish excellent facilities for instruction in chemistry. There are also anatomical, geological, and botanical laboratories equipped for student practice in these institutions, and several have greenhouses; also drafting-rooms with the necessary tables and models for illustrating the subjects taught. A large amount of practice in drawing is, moreover, required in several of the branches related to agriculture. Free-hand drawing, also, has been to some extent introduced. Several colleges have large collections of models of farm implements and machinery; engravings, photographs, charts, and drawings; together with numerous specimens of grains, grasses, and other plants; geological and mineralogical specimens ; collections of insects and skeletons of domestic and other animals ; all constituting what might be called an agricultural museum, though usually kept in separate rooms for the sake of convenience. For a fuller treatment of this subject, see Cydopoedia of Education.

ALGESRA (Arab. a^Ja6?' , reduction of parts to a whole). For a general consideration of the purposes for which this study should be pursued, and its proper place and relative proportion of time in the curriculum, the reader is referred to the article Mathematics. It is the purpose of this article to indicate some of the principles to be kept in view, and the methods to be pursued in teaching algebra.

The Literal Notation. — While this notation is not peculiar to algebra, but is the characteristic language of mathematics, the student usually en- . counters it for the first time when he enters upon this study. No r^ 1^ ^i satisfactory progress can be made in any of the higher branches ^speciallv °^ mathematics, as General Geometry, Calculus, Mechanics, studied. Astronomy, etc., without a good knowledge of the literal notation. By far the larger part of the difficulty which the ordinary student finds in his study of algebra proper — the science of the equation — and in his more advanced study of mathematics, grows out of an imperfect knowledge of the notation. These are facts well known to all experienced teachers. Nevertheless, it is no unfrequent thing to hear a teacher say of a pupil : "He is quite good in algebra, but cannot get along very well with literal examples !'' Nothing could be more absurd. It comes from mistaking the importance and fundamental character of this notation. It is of the first importance that, at the outset, a clear conception be gained of the nature of this notation, and that, in all the course, no method nor language be used which wiU do violence to these principles. Thus, that the letters a, b, x, y, etc. , as used in mathematics, represent pure number, or quantity, is to be amply illustrated in the first lessons, and care is to be

8 ALGEBEA

taken that no vicious conception insinuate itself. To say that, as 5 apples and 6 apples make 11 apples, so 5a and 6a make llrt, is to teach lUustra- error. If this comparison teaches any thing, it is that the letter ^^ ' a in 5a, 6a, and 11a, simply gives to the numbers 5, 6, and 11 a concrete significance, as does the word apples in the first instance; but this is erroneous. The true conception of the use of a, to represent a number, may be given in this way: As 5 times 7 and 6 times 7 make 11 times 7, so 5 times any number and 6 times the same number make 11 times that number. Now, let a represent any number whatever; then 5 times a and 6 times a make 11 times a. The two thoughts to be impressed are, that the letter represents some number, and that it is immaterial what number it is, so long as it represents the same number in all cases in the same problem. Again, the genius of the literal notation requires that no conception be taken of a letter as a representative of number, which is not equally applicable to fractional and integral numbers. Thus Application ^^ ^^^ ^^^ g^^ ^j^^^ ^ fraction which has a numerator a and a