The war in the East. An illustrated history of the conflict between Russia and Turkey with a review of the Eastern question

Front matter

Class _L Book

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT

ALEXANDER 11— CZAR OF RUSSIA.

Preface

The author of this work has made the Eastern Question for nearly twenty, years a subject of constant and special study. As a member of the editorial staff of the 'New York Tribune, and contributor to other daily and weekly papers of New York, he has had many occasions to discuss it editorially in its various aspects, and as editor of and contributor to several cyclopaedias "and other Dublications, he has made himself familiar with the entire literature on this subject. A large amount of information had in this way been accumulated when the new Eastern war began. The general interest which the civilized world takes in this new effort to solve the Eastern Question, appeared to him. a suitable occasion to combine the results of his former studies with a history of the Eastern war, into a comprehensive work on the Eastern Question and the Eastern war.

"While every part of the subject embraced within the scope of this work may be supposed to enlist the attention of our readers, the interest of all undoubtedly culminates in the history of the Russo-Turkish war. This great conflict in the East ranks ^^dth the Civil war in our own country, and the Franco-German war, among the most memorable wars which the present generation has witnessed or is likely to witness. A compendium of such a war, it is therefore believed, will be a welcome volume in the library of many households. This work gives due prominence to the more interesting features of the conflict. It gives an account of every battle, using in the description of the more important battles, graphic

4 PREFACE,

accounts of eye-witnesses. Its biographical notices of distinguished Kussian and Turkish generals are very full, and embrace almost every name that is mentioned in the progress of the war — as a glance at the pages of the book will show. A distinguished artist, who has resided in both Turkey and Kussia, and who is familiar with the customs and manners of the different races who inhabit these countries, as well as with the places and fortifications in both, has designed many of the illustrations which embellish this book.

The narrative of the war is preceded by a historical outline of the Eastern Question; a brief sketch of the past and present condition of both Russia and Turkey, and a history of the Bosnian insurrection of 1875, and the Servian war of 1876. Conjointly, these chapters contain information most needed for understanding the development of the Eastern Question prior to 1876, and enable the reader to conceive a clear idea of the causes, importance, and aim of the war.

The peace which has been concluded between Eussia and Turkey can not possibly end the Eastern Question, but is more likely to be the beginning of a series of new questions and conflicts of which it is impossible to predict, or even to guess, the duration or the end. Even now, while this book is going to press, and while the ink with which the Treaty of San Stefano was signed is hardly yet dry, the air is full of the noise of conflicting demands and of rumors of wars, in which all the principal nations of Europe are in danger of being involved. The so-called peace has brought only dissatisfaction. The demand for its modification in the interests of other powers than Russia went up even before its terms were fully known. Even the former tributary States of Turkey, which, having gained their independence, might have been supposed to have received the greatest benefits from the treaty, find that they have reason to feel wronged, or to believe that their rights and interests have not been properly regarded ; the claims of one State, which deserved as high consideration as those of any of the others, and which enjoyed a wide and warm sympathy in Western and Southern Europe, have

PREFACE. 5

been ignored. Two powerful nations, wliich liad great interests at stake in the adjustment of the affairs of Turkey, find themselves, imder the new arrangements, dictated by Russia in the presence of a situation which they can not tolerate. Their claims are acknowledged to have more or less of justice by their neighboring powers, and even by Germany, which has been regarded as the adviser of Russia, and its supporter, in a moral sense. The same dispatches which report the diplomatic remonstrances of these powers and the rephes, the propositions and counter-propositions which are circulating among the Courts of Europe, bring accounts of their measures to support their claims by force, if they should adjudge that necessary or expedient. In the meantime Russia keeps its armies in front of Constantinople, and England approaches it with its warvessels, either party being determined not to retire till the (]^uestions at dispute have been settled.

The parties to the new controversy have great resources and powers of endurance, and are nearly evenly balanced. They have also great schemes at heart, and vital interests at stake, all of which are involved in the present dispute. The contest, if they should come to blows, will be long and desperate. It will, in its turn, cause new questions to be brought up, and may lead to new conflicts, involving as principals parties which hold only a secondary place in the present discussions ; for a protracted war on the bordei's of Turkey can not fail to arouse the diversified nationalities ef Austria to an effort to realize their aspirations.

It is therefore evident that the Russo-Turkish war of 187T-'78 was only a single incident in a long chain of events ; trhftt the questions which seemed most immediately involved in it, were only as the single threads of an entangled net of international complications and issues, of which the unraveling has hardly yet begim. It is impossible to understand adequately either the events of the war or the questions without having first acquired some comprehension of the events and complications and issues to which they are related, and of which they are essentially a part. The effort is made to

PREFACE.

give such a compreliension, not onlj in the introductory historical chapters which lead up to the war, but further in the chapters following the narrative of the war.

In these chapters are treated the important issues connected with the Eastern Question, which yet await their solution ; the decline of the Ottoman power, and the deterioration of the Turkish race, which promise to produce for it further losses of territory and continued enf eeblement ; the physical and moral condition of the Christian nationalities of Turkey, and their probable capacity to build up self-supporting States to take the place of the Turks ; the prospective growth of Russia, and the aims and tendencies of Panslavism ; the dangers which the co-existence of so many discordant races involves, not only for Turkey, but also for Austria ; the conflicting interests of the two greatest Empires of the world, the British and the Russian, in Asia. Finally, a suggestion is attempted of a method in which a final solution of the Eastern and all other international complications may be reached in the general recognition of the principle of self-government by nationalities.

As the Eastern Question is by far the most important of all the international complications which keep the Old World in an unsettled condition ; and as for many years to come it can hardly fail to constitute a conspicuous and interesting element in the history of Turkey, Russia, Austria, England, and many other States of Europe, Asia, and Africa, a full statement of all issues involved in it will conserve, it is hoped, for this work some value as a reliable guide through the continuing difficulties of the Eastern Question, even when the interest in the bloody war shall have begun to subside.

A. J. S.

Contents

PAGB

PRErAOE 3

Introduction

IMPORTA]N"CE OF THE EASTER:^ QUESTION AND THE EASTERi^J" WAES.

The War of 1877-'78 one of the most important Wars of the Nineteenth Century — Vastness of the territory involved— Great Issues at stake — Eastern Europe on the eve of a Radical Transformation 21

FIRST BOOK.

TURKEY, RUSSIA, Al^D THE EASTERIST QUESTION PRIOR TO 1877.

Chapter I. A Historical Outlo^e Of The Eastern Question

The Crusades— Conquest of Eastern Europe by the Turks— The Turks Threatening the Christian Nations of Europe— Emperor Maximilian's Plan of a General Coalition against the Turks— Decay of Turkey and Else of the Russian Empire —Aspirations of the Christian Races of Turkey for the Recovery of their Independence -History of the Russian Policy in the East— The Interest of Austria and England in the Eastern Question — International Treaties and Joint Action

of the Christian Powers — The Great Crisis 27

Chapter II

mSTOKICAL SKETCH OF RUSSIA.

Origin of the Russians — The Republic of Novgorod — Oceupation of Russia by the Mongol Tartars — Rise of the Principality of Moscow — Ivan the Great, the First Prince who called Himself Czar— Ivan the Terrible— Michael Romanoff— Peter the Great — Anna — Elizabeth — Catherine the Great — Alexander I. — Nicholas I. —

Alexander II 52

CONTENTS.

Chapter III. Condition Of Russia

The Eaces of Russia — Backwardness of Civilization — Abolition of Serfdom — Public Instruction — Russia the only State in Europe without a Representative Form of Government — The Policy of Russianization — Religious Intolerance— Agricultural Resources — Scarcity of Large Towns — The Village Commune — The Pro- \incial Assembly — The Russian Church and the Dissenters — The Army, Navy, and Finances of Russia 63

Chapter IV. Historical Sketch Of Turkey

Origin of the Turks — The Seljukian Empire — Rise of the Ottoman Turks — Conquest of Constantinople — Growth of the Turkish Empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa — Turkish Policy with regard to Conquered Nations — Climax of the Ottoman Power under Solyman— Spell of Turkish Bravery Broken — Struggle of the Subjected Races for Independence — The Sick Man 91

Chapter V. Present Condition Of The Turkish Empire And The Osmanli Turks

The Ruling Nationality in Turkey — Distribution of Races — What Prevents the Assimilation of the Ottomans with the More Civilized Nations — Abortive Attempts at Reform — Religious Toleration — Work of Protestant and Catholic Missionaries — The Educational Condition of Turkey — Agricultural and Mineral Resources — Tenure of Land— The Army and Navy— Desperate Condition of the Finances 101

Chapter VI. The Tributary States And The Subject Peoples Op Turkey

Rumania — Union of the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia into one State — Education, Literature, Army, and Finances — Characteristics of the People, their Dress and Manner of Living — Servia — Its History and Present Condition — Tlie Omladina — The Servian Church — Dress, Customs, and Domestic Usages — Bosnia and Herzegovina — The Bulgarians — They Regain the Autonomy of their National Church — Progress of Education — Circassian Colonies in Bulgaria — Montenegro — Sketch of its History — The Albanians — The Miridites — The Greeks of Turkey — The Districts in which they Predominate — Their Control of Turkish Commerce — Greeks in Asia Minor — Crete — The Armenians — — Maronites— Druses— Egypt— Its Advance toward Independence— The Suez . Canal and other Works of Improvement — Tripoli and Tunis 127

Chapter VII. The Insurrection Of 1875, And The Wars Of 1876

Complaints of the Christian Subjects of European Turkey — The Insurrection in Herzegovina and Bosnia — Efforts to Suppress it — The Great Powers seek to Prevent its Spreading — Futile Efforts of Diplomacy — Schemes of Reform — The Andrassy and Berlin Notes — The Massacre of Consuls at Salonica, and the Bulgarian Atrocities — Views and Reports of Mr. Gladstone, Mr. Baring, and Eu-

CONTENTS.

gene Scbu5'lcr on the Massacres in Bulgaria — Servia and Montenegro make War upon Turkey — Details of the Campaign — Defeat of the Serrians — An Armistice Granted — Conference of the Powers at Constantinople— Lord Salisbury, the British, and Count Chaudordy, the French, Rrepresentative at the Conference — The Turkish Constitution — Plan of the Conference for the Settlement of DiflS.- culties— It is Rejected by Tm-key — The Protocol— It is Rejected— Conclusion of Peace between Turkey and Servia — The Turkish Parliament 165

SECOND BOOK.

THE EASTERN WAR OF 1877-1878.

Chapter I, The Russian Declaration Of War

The Russian War Manifesto — Prince Gortchakoff's Circular — The Turkish Reply — The Army of the Pruth, its Composition and Commanders — Total Strength of the Russian Armies— Crossing of the Pruth— Occupation of Galatz and Braila— Convention between Russia and Rumania — Turkish Protest — Declaration of Rumanian Independence— Strength of the Rumanian Army — The Seat of War — The Defenses of Turkey— The Danube and its Fortresses— The Turkish Quadrilateral — The Country beyond the Balkans — Strength and Condition of the Turkish Forces— Operations on the Danube 211

CHAPTER II. PASSAaE OF THE DANUBE AND THE BALKANS

Passage of the Danube at Galatz — Bombardment of Rustchuk — The Russians Cross at Sistova — Inactivity of the Turks — Proclamation of the Czar to the Bulgarians — Capture of Braila and of Tirnova — The Balkan Passes— Gourko Crosses the Balkans — Capture of the Shipka Pass — Advance of Gourko into Rumelia — The Russians Capture Lovatz — Storming of Nicopolis 235

Chapter III. The Russian Advance In Armenia

Sketch of the Field of the Armenian Campaign— Its History— First Advance of the Russians — Capture of Bayazid — Capture of Ardahan — Gen. Melikoff before Kars —Gen. Tergukassoii at Zeidekan— The Turks everywhere Retreating before the Russians 255

Chapter IV. The Russian Reverse In Armenia

The Situation in Armenia at the middle of June— Battle of Zeidekan — An unexpected change in the Fortunes of War— Defeat of General Tergukassofl at Delibaba and of General Melikoff at Zewin— Retreat of the Russians— General Tergukassoff reaches Igdir, and marches to the relief of the Russian garrison at Bayazid— Horrible condition of that place— The Siege of Kars abandoned— The Russians again in Russian Territor}- 273 lO

CONTENTS.

Chapter V. The Battles Around Plevna

Change in the Fortunes of the Russians — Removal of Abdul Kerim — Appointment of Mehemet Ali to the Supreme Command — Plevna, its Situation — Arrival of Osman Pasha — Battle of July 19th — Defeat of the Russians — Osman Captures Lovatz — Battle of Karabunar — Retreat of General Gourko — Battle of Eski Sagra — Second Defeat of the Russians at Plevna, July 3lst — Retreat of the Russians from the Lorn — Operations in the Dobrudja — Bombardment of Kustendje — Struggles in the Shipka Pass — Battle of Karasan — Repulse of a Turkish Attack on Pelisat — Skobeleff Recaptures Lovatz — Battle of Kechlova — Third Defeat of the Russians before Plevna — Capture of the Grivitza Redoubt — Bravery of the Rumanian Troopa 285

Chapter VI. The Fall Of Pleyna

Renewed fighting in the Shipka Pass — Defeat of Mehemet Ali at Tcherkovna — Mehemet Ali replaced by Suleiman in the Supreme Command — Formation of the Army of Orkhanie — Reinforcements and Ammunition for Plevna — Battle of Gorni Dabnik — Capture of Telis — Battle of Radomirze — The investment of Plevna complete — Capture of the Green Hill — Formation of the Army of Sophia — Capture of Teteven and Vratza — The Rumanians take Rahova — Capture of Pravetz and Etropol — Turks evacuate Orkhanie and retreat beyond the Balkans — Suleiman's advance on the Lom — Capture of Elena by the Turks —End of the Turkish Advance— The fall of Plevna 315

Chapter VII. The Second Campaign In Armenia

A Summer's rest in Asia — Position of the Armies — The Russians again approach Kars — Battles of Kisil Tepe, Yagni, and Aladja Dagh — Retreat of Mukhtar Pasha — Advance of Gen. Tergukassofl on the Southern line — Battle of Deve Boyun, before Erzerum — Capture of Kai'S 339

Chapter VIII. The Operations Before Batum And In The Caucasus

Batum — Its Importance as a Port — The Russians Undertake its Investment — The Turkish Expedition to Sukhum Kaleh, and their Effort to Excite an Insurrection of the Caucasian Tribes— Insignificant Results of the Movement 360

Chapter IX. On To Constantinople

The Close of the Campaign on the Lom— Servia enters upon the Scene of War- Capture of Ak Palanka and Pirot by the Servians — Gourko Crosses the Etropol Balkan — Battles of Taskesen and Kamarli — Capture of Sophia, the Trojan Pass, the Shipka Pass, and Philippopolis — Suleiman Pasha Defeated and Forced into the Rhodope Mountains— Capture of Adrianople— Suleiman's March to the Sea — The Russians Occupy Tcholuk and Tchataldju, and Push their Lines along the North Shore of the Sea of Marmora — Final Operations

CONTENTS. II

of the Servians— Surrender of Widin— The Czarevitch Occupies Kaegrad, Osnian Bazar, and Kustchuli— Gen. Zimmermann Assumes the Offensive— Capture of Bazardjili 369

Chapter X. Montenegko And The Greek Provinces

Negotiations between Turkey and Montenegro broken off- The Turkish Armies Operating against Montenegro— The Montenegrin Forces— Operations in the South— Ali Saib Repulsed— Suleiman Captures Kristatch, the Duga Pass, and Relieves Nicsic— Incapacity of the Montenegrin Leaders— Suleiman Captures Ostrok, and marches through Montenegro to join Ali Saib m the South- Suleiman and his Army sent to Rumelia— Prince Nicholas takes Nicsic and other Points in the Herzegovina— Cessation of Hostilities— The Montenegrins Capture Spizza and Antivari— Operations against Scutari interrupted by the Armistice— Operations in the Greek Provinces and in Crete— Short participation of Greece in the War 379

Chapter XI. Naval Operations

Russian Fleet on the Black Sea — Russian Fortifications on the Black Sea— Expedition of the " Constantine"— Destruction of Turkish vessels — Expedition to the Mouths of the Danube — Capture of a Turkish . Mail Steamer with a valuable Cargo— Torpedoes— Their use in the present War . 386

Chapter XII. Diplomatic History Of The War

How the Declaration of War was received in Europe — England and Austria — Correspondence between the British and Russian Governments — Mr. Gladstone's Resolutions — The British Fleet in Besika Bay— The Vote of Credit in the British Parliament— Agitations in Austria- Hungary — The War Feeling in Servia — Prince Milan's Visit to the Czar — The Excitement in Greece — The Mouths of the Danube— The Salonica Murderers 393

Chapter XIII. Inner History Of Turkey During The War

The Feeling at Constantinople at the Beginning of the War — Discontent over the Management of Affairs by the Government — The Holy War and the Flau" of the Prophet- The Turkish Parliament— Ministerial Changes— The Sultan still talking of Reforms — Rise and Growth of the Party of Peace — The Second Session of Parliament — The Government Censured — Boldness and Independence of the Deputies — The Sultan Dissolves the Chamber with Signs of Displeasure — Further Ministerial Changes — How the Porte Supported, the War 413^

Chapter XIV. Armistice And Peace

Early Measures Relating to Peace — What Russia would have Demanded in June, 1877 — German Prognostications — Growth of the Peace Party in Turkey — The Porte issues a Circular Appeal to the Powers for Mediation — The Powers De--

CONTENTS.

cline to Interfere, Lut England brings about a direct Negotiation between the Belligerents— Turkish Commissioners appointed, with full powers to Treat — The Armistice and the Conditions of Peace— The Treaty Signed and Ratified— Its Conditions. 421

Chapter XV. The Atrocities Of The War

The Expectation that Outrages would be Committed— It was not Disappointed — The Kurds in Southern Armenia — American Missionaries in Danger — The Massacre at Bayazid — No one Punished for it— Charges of Outrages by Russians in Armenia — They are not Confirmed — Statements of English Witnesses on the Conduct of the Russians — Gen. Melikoff's Statement — Proclamation by Mukhtar Pasha Enforcing Principles of Humanity — Russian Severities in Abkhasia — The Rivalry of Massacres in Bulgaria— Attacks on Neutral Property and Hospitals at Widin and Rustchuli— The Manufacture of Atrocities— Official Statements by the Turks against Russians and Bulgarians — The Mob at Nicopolis — The Bulgarians at Offandlik— Destruction at Sistova — Wounded Women and Children at Rasgrad and Shumla — Bulgarian Excesses at Eski Sagra — The Turks Recapture the Town and Obliterate it— The Russians Exculpated from the Charge of Committing Outrages upon Non-combatants— What the Turks Ascribed to the Russians — Testimony of Mr. Archibald Forbes — Report of Lieut.-Col. Wellesley — How the Bulgarians Regai-ded the Case — A few Bright Spots in the Picture — Turkish Atrocities far in Excess of Anything which the Bulgarians did — Destruction of Yeni Sagra — Trial and Punishment of the Bulgarians— Wholesale Executions — Remonstrances of Foreign Governments — Cruelty of Turkish Soldiers toward Armed Foes — The GeshofEs — Destitution in the Ravaged Districts — Movements for Relief — Conduct of the Montenegrins 439

Chapter XVI. The Philanthropy Of The War

Progress of Humane Principles — The Geneva Convention — The Russian Soldiers' Aid Societies — The Empress and Ladies of Rank — The Turkish Aid Societies — The British Aid Societies — Queen Victoria — Lady Straugford — Baroness Burdett- Coutts — American Societies — Union of Nations for the Relief of Distress 468

Chapter XVII. The Actors In The Contest

Interest in the Personalities of the War — Sovereigns : The Czar and the Imperial Family of Russia — Sultans : Abdul Hamid, Abdul Aziz, and Murad V. — Ismail Pasha, Prince Charles L, Prince Milan IV., Prince Nicholas, the Emperors William and Francis Joseph, Queen Victoria, President MacMahon, King Humbert — Statesmen : Prince GortchakofE, Gen. Ignatieff, Count Shuvalojff. Prince Bismarck, Count Andrassy, Earl Beaconsfield, Earl Derby, Mr. Layard, Lord Loftus, Sir H. Elliot — Midhat, Edhem, Savfet, Aarifi, Server, Hussein Avni, Redif, Mahmoud Damad and Ahmed Vefik, Pashas — Ghannes Tchamith — Russian Generals : Nepokoitchitzky, Todleben, Radetzky, Zimmermann, Baron Kriidener, Gourko, Skobeleff, Shilder-Shuldner, Prince. Shachovsky, Dragomiroff, Prince Imeretinski, Tchernayeff, Loris Melikoff, Tergukassoff, Dewell, Heimann, Oklobjio — Turkish Generals : Abdul Kerim, Mehemet Ali, Suleiman, Osman, Hobart, Mukhtar, Ghazi Mehemed, Feizi, Yaver, Shevket, Rauf, Fuad, Dervish, Pashas : 485

CONTENTS.

THIED BOOK.

THE EASTER!^ QUESTIOJST AT THE CLOSE OF THE WAR— AN OUTLOOK INTO THE FUTURE.

Chapter I

The Turkish Power in Europe destroyed by the War — The Turks can not retain their hold upon the Autonomous Provinces — Discontent sure to spread to the other Provinces — How Bulg-aria separates the Capital from the Provinces — Probable Destiny of Bosnia and the Greek Provinces — What will become of the Turks — Principles of Decay essential in the Turkish System — The Koran a Barrier to all Progress — The Mohammedan System in Conflict with Popular Government — The Turk can not be Europeanized — Fatalism— Low Condition of Education in Turke}' — Amusing Illustrations — The Turkish Language an Obstacle to Scientific Instruction— Christian Schools — They tend to build up the Christian Nationalities at the Expense of the Turkish System— Debasing Effect of Polygamy— The Conscription depleting the Country of its Moslem Youth — Sanitary Deficiencies — Decline of Turkish Population — Growing Importance and Influence of the Christians — Decadence of the Turkish Oflacial Aristocracy — Condition of Asia Minor — Account by a French Traveler — Picture by an American Missionary — Testimony of other Authors to the Ruin of the Country— The African Dependencies of Turkey — Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli — Frailty of the Tenure by which they are held— The Bedouins — The Ultimate Fate of Turkey 545

CHAPTER II. THE WETW STATES OF THE BALKAIf PENINSULA

I. BULaARIANS AND GREEKS.

The Nationalities that are to Rule Turkey — The Bulgarians, Greeks, Rumanians, Servians — Latent Traits of the Bulgarians — The Ancient Bulgarians — Relations of Bulgaria and the East-Roman Empire — The Bogomils — The Second Bulgarian Kingdom ; its Culmination and its Speedy Fall— Four Centuries and a half of Oppression and Darkness — The most Wretched People in Europe at the Beginning of this Century — The Marvelous Awakening and Speedy Advance — The First Printed Bulgarian Book — Beginning of a Movement for Education — The First Popular Schools — What has been Accomplished in I'ifty Years — Newspapers — Books — School-books and Literary Works — The Ecclesiastical Struggle and the Victory of the Bulgarians — The Capacity of the People Proved — Opinions of Intelligent Travelers — Kanitz and Yon Hellwald — They are Destined to Become a Leading Nation of the Earth — The Claims of the Greeks — T»heir Noble Ancestr}- — What the World Owes to Greek Learning — The Greeks the Ancient Settlers of Turkey— The Modern Greeks not Hellenlzed Slavs— The West Responsible for the Conquest of the Greeks— Tenacity of the Grecian Character — Greece During and Since the Revolution — Reasonableness of the Demands of Greece for Territorial Expansion — Attitude of Greece in 1876-'77 — Advance into Thessaly in February, 1878 — A Mistake — The Adjustment of Grecian Interests more Practicable than in case of any other Nationality of Turkey — Attitude of the Greeks toward the Slavs — Foreign Views on the Expansion of Greece— Earl Derby's Expression 572

CONTENTS,

CHAPTER III. THE NEW STATES OF THE BALKAiST PEIiflXSULA

The Dacia of the Eomans — Character of the Ancient Dacians — The Eoiiian Conquest and Colonization — "Withdrawal of the Romans — Successive Tribes of Northern Barbarians Occupy the Country — The Bulgarians and the East-Roman Empire — The Kingdoms of Wallachia and Moldavia — They become Tributary, and finally Subject to Turkey — They become semi-independent and are afterward united as Rumania — The Rumanians and the Romans — The Wallachian, or Rumanian Language — The Culture of the Language — Wallachia in 1835 — Count Von Moltke's Impressions — Marks of Improvement and Progress — Agriculture and Manufactures — Jealousy of Foreigners — The Nationalities in Rumania — Distribution of the Rumanians in Surrounding Countries — The Mistakes which the Rumanians have committed — The Better Qualities of the People — The Hopeful Prospects of the Country — The Servian Nationality — Its Numbers and Distribution — Education in Seiwia and Montenegro — Unity of Language — The Communal Organization of Servian Society— The National Movement and the Omladina — Capacity of the Servians to form a nation 59i

Chapter IV

The Result of the War encouraging the Panslavists — Original Object of the Slavophile Party of Russia — Opposition to the Reforms introduced by Peter the Great — They sought to Expel European Civilization and introduce a new Civilization of Russian, or Orthodox Slavic Development — Personal Histoiy of the Founders and Builders of the Party — The Aksakoffs, father and sons — Their Social Circle at Moscow— Literary Efforts of the Elder Aksakoflf in behalf of the Cause — StephanoAitch Chomiakofi, the real Founder of the Party— His Travels and the Views he acquired— The Kireyevskis — Influence of these three over the Aksakoffs — Constantine Aksakofi's Eccentric Protests against French Fashions — He revives Obsolete Customs — The Group propose the Russian jMir, or Village Commune, as the Basis of the new Organization of Societj^ — Ivan Aksakofi" and his Journal — Katkoff and the Party of Young Russia — Panslavic Movements in Austria— The Slavic Committees of Russia— Their work in the Herzegovinian Insurrection— A Pro-Servian Excitement stirred Up— The Government drawn into the Movement — The Czar commits Himself at Moscow — Silence imposed during the Constantinople Conference — Actirity resumed — Prince Tcherkassky — Aksakolf declares the Union in accord with the Czar — Slavic Meeting at Warsaw GOO

Chapter V. The Peril Of Austria

The immediate Concern of Austria in the Integrity of Turkey — Austro-Hungarian Interests alone Regarded — The Heterogeneous and Discordant Populations of the Empire-Kingdom — Decline of Austrian Predominance in Germany — The Compromise with Hun garj'— Troubles arising out of the Diversities of National and Race Interests — The Czechs and the Poles — Discontent of the non-Ma,gyar Nationalities of Hungary — Centrifugal Tendencies in the Empire and Kingdom —Hostile Designs of the Panslavists— The Magyars Friends of Turkey and Enemies of Russia— Any Change in the Eastern Situation Dangerous to Austria —

CONTENTS. 15

Hungary— Views of Hungarian Statesmen— Gen. Klapka— Louis Kossutli— Jealousy of the Visit of Signer Crispi, and his Proposition for a Confederation of Slavic States and the Enlargement of Greece— Pro-Kussian Influences at the Court of Vienna 628

Chapter VI. England And Russia

"Fear of Russia entertained by the Powers— Early advances of Russia toward Constantinople — Frederick the Great on the Threatening Power of Russia — Will of Peter the Great — British Interests in the East — Russia and England Rivals in Asia— Russian Conquest Dangerous to the British Tenure of India— Kashgar and Russia — Afghanistan, its Importance to British Interests — Russian Influence in Persia— The Blundering Diplomacy of the English Government Condemned — Position of the English Parties on the Question — Counter-arguments of the anti- Russians and the anti-Turks — Views of the British Cabinet and Conservative Statesmen— The Positions assumed by the Liberal Statesmen— Moderated tone of the English Journals — Why England and Russia should not Quarrel — They are the Destined Rulers of Asia—What Benefits they have Conferred upon it— What they may yet Accomplish for its Civilization and Prosperity 640

CHAPTER YII.

THE NATIONALITY PRINCIPLE AND THE FINAL ISSUE OF THE EASTERN

QUESTION.

The End of the War brings New Complications — New Conflicting Interests — How shall they be Settled ? — The Influences which Control the Adjustment of State Lines — Dynastic Considerations — The Principle of Nationalities — Its History — Italian and German Unity — The Nationality Principle in Austria — Its Application to European Turkey — Indications that it will gain Strength — It afibrds the Best Guide to a Final Adjustment 663