Methods of teaching in country schools

Dedication

To THE teachers of the country schools of the U. S., those who stand nominally on the lowest round of the Educational ladder, yet who possess the power to wield the greatest influence on the civilization and culture of our people, this volume is respectfully dedicated, (3)

Preface

This book was written for country teachers, by a country teacher and though doubtless full of imperfections, it is hoped by the author that many things which he has learned in the school of experience, that dearest of teachers, the reader may learn by a careful perusal of its contents.

Captious critics may find much to worry over, but the writer can assure them that they will not find anything which he has not worried over before them.

A strictly logical arrangement of the subject has not been attempted. It was thought that a familiar conversational style was better adapted to the purpose in hand.

It will be observed that frequent references are made from one part of the book to another. This was done to avoid repetition, and it i& hoped the teachers will make use of them.

Central Normal College, Danville, Ind.

Chapter I. — The Teacher

SEC. I. — Moral Qualifications _ - - - 9

SEC. 2. — Mental Qualifications _ _ - 10

SEC. 3. — Physical Qualifications - - - - 14

SEC. 4. — Literary and Scientific Qualifications 18

SEC 5. — Spirit of the Teacher - - - - 23

SEC 6. — Personal Habits _ _ _ - 25

SEC 7. — In Relation to Patrons - - - 27

SEC 8. — In Relation to Society - - - 31

SEC 9. — In Relation to the Profession - - 31

CHAPTER n. THE SCHOOL.

SEC. I. — Preliminary Work - - - - 34

SEC 2. — Organizing _ _ _ _ - 37

SEC 3. — Conducting Recitations ~ ~ ~ 39

SEC 4. — Government ----- 44

CHAPTER ni. THE SCHOOL-HOUSE.

SEC. I. — School Architecture - - - - 55

SEC 2. — School Apparatus - - - - 62

SEC 3. — Ventilation - - - - - - 64

VUl

PART IL— METHODS OF TEACHING.

CHAP. XIII. — Hints and Helps for the Teacher - 216 PART I--SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER I.

THE TEACHER.

I. MORAL QUALIFICATIONS.

All men, even the most vicious, will admit that he who is immoral should not be placed in the position of teacher of youth. Popular opinion says teachers should have a good moral character, and all certificates require it, but how often, alas, is there a failure in carrying out this provision in practice. A man may be a very immoral man and yet find no trouble in getting some one or more persons to certify to his moral character. The law can not reach this matter except in cases of outbreaking immorality. It rests, then, with the teacher himself and with his conscience. Ask yourself, young man, if you are a fit person to enter that sacred temple. Pause and purify yourself on the threshhold. Remember that you carry about you a moral or immoral atmosphere according to the condition of the soul within, and that the innocent youth must imbibe that atmosphere be it healthful or poisonous. It is impossible for any one to be a successful hypocrite. He may be morally rotten at heart and attempt to make an outward show of morality for the purpose of obtaining and holding his position as teacher, but youth are not so easily deceived and moral instruction will have but little weight coming from such a man. The inward character of a man will crop out in spite of himself. In his teaching, in his government, in his conversation, in the family, or on the play ground, the character of the teacher will exhibit itself unconsciously to him but plainly to others. Says Dr. Holland, " The mind that has become a treasure house of truth and beauty speaks a world into existence with every utterance. * ^ * We give what we have received — that which is in us will out of us. Expression is the necessity of possession." If the teacher's heart is a " treasure house of truth and beauty " it will overflow, exerting an ennobling influence on all who may come near it. On the other hand if it be a *' whitened sepulcher, filled with dead men's bones and all uncleanness," it will pollute all who have to deal with it.

The teacher must be not only a moral but a religious man, not of that kind who love to " display to congregations wide, devotions, every grace except the heart," but one who loves God and his fellow man and obeys the golden rule, not from policy but as the deep seated conviction of his soul.

II. MENTAL QUALIFICATIONS.

The teacher may be a truly moral and religious man and yet be entirely incompetent. He must have certain mental qualifications. It is not my purpose here to enter into a lengthy discussion of the mental faculties of man, but simply to hint at a few things by which the teacher may measure himself.

1. He should have a cheerftd and ho-peful disposition. The school-room is no place for a gloomy, sour, despondent nature. Children and youth are naturally buoyant and hopeful, but their impressible natures may be easily warped by constant contact with a morose disposition.

2. He should be kind and benevolent. No human heart is proof against the power of kindness. Even brute nature may be greatly impressed by it. I need not enlarge upon this point, although it would be easy to multiply words. The reader can see for himself the necessity of this faculty in a teacher.

3. He shoidd be open, frank and unsuspicious. These are noble qualities, but I would not be misunderstood here. I do not mean that a teacher should be so unsus-

•picious that he will consider all children as born angels who can do no harm. Children sometimes need watching, but the teacher who acts as a detective or spy and constantly exhibits that disposition should have no place in the school-room. He should ever remember that there is a spark of honor in every breast and that sentiment should be appealed to and trusted in if he would attain control over vicious dispositions. He should always be ready to confess himself in the wrong when he sees he has made a mistake.

4. He shoidd have a love of the work. This implies a love for children. He who has not the faculty called by Phrenologists Philoprogenitiveness well developed, should not choose the profession of teacher. He must have a love for the profession or he can not take a deep interest in it. He can have little control of children unless he can sympathize with them and he can not sympathize with them unless he loves them. He should have this love sufficiently strong to be able to encourage their efforts and bear with their shortcomings, to feel for their sorrows, to lift up the despondent, to bring out the timid, to hold in check the bold, to conquer the obstinate and in general to throw his whole soul into the work of improving their physical, mental and moral condition.

5. He should be conscientious. This faculty leads a man to do right because it is right; to shun the wrong because it is wrong. He must feel that it is his duty to teach well and feel conscience-smitten if he leaves undone what he might have done for the benefit of those under his care. Without this feeling no one can become a good teacher. All men have this faculty in some degree, but those in whom it is feebly developed are the rogues, scoundrels and hypocrites of society. A lack of this feeling has filled our jails and penitentiaries and furnished subjects for the gallows. This faculty should be cultivated in children and youth, and the teacher who has it largely developed himself is best calculated to teach it.

6. He should he a lover of order. In no place is order and system needed more than in the school-room. If the teacher be not naturally systematic, he should use his utmost endeavors to improve himself in this respect. Let him make order and S5^stem a study. Let him practice it everywhere, even to the minor details of daily duties. He should practice keeping the articles in his room in order, the books on the shelves, &c., until it becomes a kind of second nature to him.

7. He should be firm and self-reliajit. This quality may easily be carried to extremes. Many men have the faculty of firmness so weU developed that it becomes mere obstinacy and mulishness, or they are so impressed with the importance of being sole master of whatever is in their charge that they become tyrants and despots. The true teacher must avoid either extreme. If he is kind and conscientious and loves children he can be firm without being despotic, self-reliant without being bigoted and can govern with justice and equity.

8. He should have a social and agreeable nature. A teacher should have none of the disposition of a hermit. He may succeed in some other occupations and not be of a social nature, but in this he can not. The teacher's business is to improve society and therefore he must make himself one of the mass. He must have a kind word for every one, must have the power of adapting himself to different classes of people and making his company agreeable to them, but at the same time maintaining his self-respect and moral dignity. (See pp. 29 and 31).

To be a good teacher a man should have a good brain, all the mental faculties well developed. A man may be able to make a good wagon wheel or pair of boots and be greatly lacking in many of the mental faculties. He may be a good penman, musician, or artist, and lack conscientiousness and benevolence. But a man can not be a successful teacher who is greatly lacking in any faculty, that is he can not teach everything. The teacher in our public schools is required to teach something of almost everything, either directly or indirectly. Such also is the intimate inter-relation of the branches of knowledge that to be proficient in any one branch a man must have some acquaintance with all other branches. A man can not teach that which he does not know. A teacher can not have too much knowledge. He can not have a knowledge of a branch unless he has a good development of the mental faculty which is necessary to have, in order to acquire that branch. (See p. i8).

Do not think, teacher, that it is absolutely necessary to be born with a full development of these mental qualifications. Almost any person of ordinary mental calibre can acquire these qualifications Ly persistent study and practice. If, then, you are lacking in some of the mental faculties necessary to make a good teacher let it be your constant study to improve yourself. Let the motto, " KNOW THYSELF," be cvcr present before your mind, and apply your energies to the improvement of those parts which are lacking. You may be lacking in one faculty and yet be able to make up for it in part by a full development of some other faculty, but nothing is of so great advantage as a brain well balanced. If you are greatly lacking in any of these-parts you would better seek some other employment as the experience necessary to improve you will be at the expense of your pupils and patrons and a constant source of vexation to yourself. If every teacher would look in upon himself and when he finds he is not fitted for the place he occupies, would step down and out and enter some other profession or adopt some other employment, the condition of our schools would soon improve rapidly.

III. PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS.

The teacher must have good health. The school-room is not a proper place for an invalid. It is often the case, that persons who are from some physical defect unfitted for occupations requiring manual labor, enter the teaching profession, hoping thus to make a living. Again, many enter the profession with good constitutions to retire from it in a few years with impaired health and seek some other occupation from which they hope to regain their lost vitality. The former should not and the latter need not be the case. No man who from physical reasons is unable to work should make this an excuse for teaching school. If he has the proper mental qualifications and good health, though he may lack a limb or the use of one, yet he is capable of teaching school. If the teacher understands and practices the laws of health, he may live as long and enjoy as good health as in any other occupation. There is not space in a treatise of this kind for a full discussion of the question of hygiene. A few hints and suggestions, however, will not be out of place.

A man may follow some out-door occupation, being possessed of a robust constitution, and live and enjoy excellent health for years and never take a thought about the matter. Exercise of the body, pure air and sunshine will go far towards. making up for excesses in eating and drinking, or for want of sleep. But a teacher is for a great part of the time deprived of the opportunity for bodily exercise, often of pure air and sunshine. He should then whenever opportunity presents take daily exercise in the open air and sunshine. Most country teachers board or live at some distance from the school-house and the necessary walk to and from school affords an opportunity to enjoy these three essentials of health. Some persons need more exercise than others. Those of a rough and sturdy build need bodily exercise more than those of more delicate frame. Persons with delicate frames often overdo this matter of exercise and the very thing which, if properly conducted would be of great benefit, becomes an injury to them. Exercise to be beneficial should stop short of moderate fatigue.

The teacher should not be above manual labor. An hour each day spent in chopping or sawing wood would, in many cases, be of great benefit to the teacher's health and would not detract from his popularity. Let the teacher take his place on the play ground and exercise with the pupils in their games. (See 228.) The study of some branch of Natural Science, as Botany, Zoology, or Geology, will necessarily lead the teacher to take walks in pursuit of knowledge. Such rambles among rocks and trees will be food for both body and mind. Riding ou horseback, rowing, skating, driving, working in the garden, or at the various occupations on the farm are all to be highly recommended, if not indulged in to excess, as beneficial to the teacher's health.

What must I say about diet? Books have been written on the subject and yet men may follow their instructions to the letter and come out in a few years dyspeptics. But I will say, be temperate. It is not so much what you eat as it is how you eat it. Regular meals when the occupation is regular, and moderate in quantity, eaten slowly, with cheerful company, not too great a variety at one meal to tempt the appetite, but a variety from day to day, not very much animal food, an avoidance of pastry, plenty of ripe fruits and vegetables, food coarse rather than fine — these requirements will keep one in health so far as diet is concerned.

Another essential to perfect health is cleanliness. Frequent bathing of the whole body in warm or tepid water with free use of soap and frequent change of Underclothing will go far towards maintaining health- Bathing may be carried to excess. The skin may be excited unduly, causing extreme sensitiveness to changes of temperature. Once a week in winter, and two or three times a week in summer is often enough. The same clothing that is worn in day time, should not be worn at night. The clothes worn next the skin in day time should be removed, and allowed to air at night. They may be put on again in the morning, and those worn at night allowed to air.

Tobacco, tea, coflee and spirituous liquors, are not necessary for any one, and though not all of them always injurious, the teacher will do well to let them severely alone. (See p. 25).

I have given here a few hints which I trust will be regarded by the teacher, and if he is not already informed in the matter of hygiene, I hope he will study it, and apply his knowledge to the care of his physical organization.

Said John Locke, nearly two hundred years ago, " A sound mind in a sound body is a short, but full description of a happy state in this world." A man can not have a perfectly sound mind without a sound body, and certainly, though one may enjoy existence without a sound mind, he is not capable of filling the position of

teacher.

IV. SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS.

It is generally supposed that to teach a primary school or such a school as is generally found in country districts, requires but slight culture and scholarship. While it is true that a man may be a good and successful teacher of the common branches, and know nothing whatever of Latin or Greek, or of the higher mathematics, or of the natural sciences, it is also true, that had he knowledge of these higher branches, he would be a better teacher. To say nothing of the culture and enlargement of the mind, by the study of science, and languages, the mere knowledge obtained is of great value, even to the teacher of the most primary class.

Under the present state of society, we can not expect teachers all to be great scholars. They may commence teaching with no more education than that to be obtained in common country schools, but they should not be content with that. While they teach they should study, study not only how best to teach, but to improve their minds in higher branches of knowledge. (See page

The teacher should always be a learner, and if he is a true teacher, he will learn more than his pupils. He will learn not only more of the branches, he is teaching, but will make rapid progress in the higher branches of knowledge. His first endeavor should be to attain ordinary proficiency in the branches he is required to teach. This he should have before attempting to manage a school. Then while teaching he should study the lessons ahead of his classes, that he may come before them prepared to demonstrate any point which may come up.

At the same time he is keeping ahead of his classes in the common branches, he should pursue some one of the higher branches. He should not, however, undertake too many studies at once. Let him take one extra study at a time, and when he has attained considerable proficiency, take up another.

Many a 3^oung man has acquired a knowledge of the higher branches by study of books without a teacher, and man}^ young men can yet do so, but in these days of cheap schools, no young man who expects to become a teacher, should fail to spend at least one term in some Normal school, or institution where he may obtain a knowledge of literature and science. He may, if he have a good common school education, teach a term or two in the country and then spend his earnings in taking a course of study in some wide-awake institution. I would not recommend a college course, where the energetic country youth is held back to keep pace with sons of rich men, who are sent there, to spend their fathers' money, and receive a thin coat of polish which will not stand the hard knocks of that greatest educator of all, the actual business world. The young man may do as I have known young men to do, borrow money to take a course at school, and then go home and teach, and earn the money to pay it back. If such a course can be pursued, the young man can well afford to pay a good interest on the mone}/'.

You can acquire the fundamental principles of the sciences under a competent instructor, and in contact with others who are enthusiastically pursuing the same study, much more rapidly than by your own unaided study. Having thus had a start, you can pursue these branches at your leisure, during your odd moments, and while you are earning some money, and improving yourself in the common branches, and in the art of teaching school, and gaining experience of great value.

Much may be learned by improving the odd moments. It is said that Dickens never wrote more than two hours a day, and we wonder at the immense amount of literary work he accomplished. But a short time each day will accomplish wonders. It is not the protracted efforts once in a month or so that count, but it is the little every day. Let no day pass in which ycu do not do some studpng, be it ever so little. The teacher has ample time if he improve it properly, to inform himself. He has mornings and evenings and Saturdays to study. He can also use a portion of his noons and recesses in looking over his lessons for the day.

It is best to have some regular programme for study and recreation. For example, let him devote half an hour each morning and evening to the study of some science, not allowing any ordinaiy circumstances to detract from this half-hour twice each day. Let him devote an hour each Saturday to the study of history, another hour to reading works on teaching or education, and half an hour each morning and evening to the preparation for his daily recitations, and the remainder of his leisure time to general reading, recreation and exercise. The time usually spent in loafing at the village store, or in idle conversation, would be better consumed in general reading, such as newspapers, magazines, even fiction. I would advise the teacher to be careful what fictitious works he reads. The standard authors as Dickens, Scott, Mrs. Stowe, may be dipped into lightly, but too much time spent even in reading the best and purest works of fiction is but wasted. Remember that you have a life-time in which to read these works, and do not be in a hurry to finish them. Use them as a means of mental relaxation, but do not be carried away by them. If you find they are absorbing too much of your attention, stop and lay them aside. Better even never read fiction at all if you find you can not control your appetite for it. You are driving a fast team, and you need keep a tight rein. There is plenty of interesting general reading to occupy your leisure besides fiction. Read works of travel, biographies, historical works, and miscellaneous sketches and you will find yourself better informed, and at the same time rested from more active labors.

If you can take up a work of fiction, and read a few minutes, and then lay it down without an effort, you are perfectly safe, but if it absorbs so much of your mind, and excites your imagination so much that you will sit up half a night to finish a novel, you would better never look inside of one. I was once a whole year reading one of Dickens' novels, and I am positive that it did me more good than if I had read it in two days or two weeks. I have done a great deal of light reading while walking to and from school, but as this is hard on the eyes, I would not recommend it. Perhaps if not more than five or ten minutes at a time is spent in this way, no harm can result to the eyes. It is a good plan to carry a book with you, and read a page or two, and then with your eyes off the book, resting them, think over what you have read. Consider for a moment what may be accomplished in this way. You may read a page in a minute, and ten pages each day will amount to a large book at the end of the year. If you are enthusiastic you will always carry a book or magazine with you, and read while waiting for your meals, for the train, anywhere and everywhere opportunity presents to occupy a few moments in this way. This may sound trifling, but remember that, " trifles light as air make up the sum of human things," and " little drops of water, little grains of sand, make the mighty ocean, and the bounteous land."

The teacher needs a general knowledge not only to enable him to teach well, but enable him to fill a high place in society. But almost every man has some special talent in some direction, a special love and talent for some science or art and this he should cultivate. Do you take more interest in Geology than any other science, then commence a collection of specimens and use every opportunity to inform yourself in this specialty. If it is Botany, collect a herbarium. If Chemistry, get a few chemicals and apparatus and go to experimenting. If you have a talent for Music or Painting, cultivate it.

In general, let the teacher make ample preparation for his work, and though he do not follow it for a life-time, the culture he receives will be of inestimable value in whatever profession or walk of life he may choose or be driven to accept. Do not think that because you are only a country teacher that you need no special training or that you will never amount to anything in the world. Some of the greatest statesmen and scientists, poets and authors of this country began their career as teachers of country schools.

V. THE SriRIT OF THE TEACHER,

Every person who enters the sacred temple of the school-room for the purpose of assuming control of the young and budding minds which daily assemble for instruction, should make a careful self-examination and inquire what are his motives and what the spirit which prompts him to such a step. Is it for money alone? Is it for popularity? Is it because he is unfitted for any other occupation? Is it because he loves to display his knowledge ? If he has no higher motives than these he would better for the sake of those who are to be under his care and for his own sake, enlist in the army, go to the poor-house or run off' to sea.

I can not better express what I wish my readers to know than in the language of an old and prominent educator whose " Theoj'y and Practice of Teaching'''' was of great value to me in my first years of teaching. I refer to David P. Page, who says, " But the trite spirit of the teacher^ — a spirit that seeks not alone pecuniary emolument, but desires to be in the highest degree useful to those who are taught; a spirit that elevates above everything else the nature and capabilities of the human soul, and that trembles under the responsibility of attempting to be its educator; a spirit that looks upon gold as the contemptible dross of the earth, when compared with that imperishable gem which is to be polished and brought out into heaven's light to shine forever; a spirit that scorns all the rewards of earth and seeks that highest of all rewards, an approving conscience and an approving God ; a spirit that earnestly inquires what is right, and that dreads to do what is wrong; a spirit that can recognize and reverence the handiwork of God in every child, and that burns with the desire to be instrumental in training it to the highest attainment of which it is capable, — such a spirit is the first thing to be sought by the teacher, and without it the highest talent can not make him truly excellent in his profession."

Cultivate such a spirit and with a good moral character, with good mental and physical •endowments you will be in the highest degree successful. There are many who make teaching the stepping-stone to some more lucrative employment or profession. I can not say that this is altogether wrong. While it is true that experience makes good teachers, and men who liave been a life-time trying to improve themselves in the art of teaching are generally the best teachers, yet experience is not really necessary to make a good teacher. If a young man throws his whole soul into the work and has the proper qualifications he may teach as well the first school he undertakes as he would after forty years' experience. He may profit by the experience and mistakes of others. The trouble is not so much that men make teaching a stepping-stone to something else, but it lies in the fact that men do not learn to do with their might what they find to do. A young man may be preparing for the law, medicine or the ministry, and at the same time be wholly and heartily enlisted in the work of teaching. If we consider the matter aright a man should be a teacher in any profession and he who does his best while teaching will be very apt to do his best in whatever other profession he may afterwards choose. In other words, if he have the true spirit of the teacher he will have the true spirit of the lawyer, physician or minister.