A treatise on anatomy, physiology, and hygiene ...

Front matter

^*titm mm

5- c mi.

tit

Preface

Agesilatjs, king of Sparta, when asked what things boys should learn, replied, "Those which they will practise when they become men." As health requires the observance of the laws inherent to the different organs of the human system, so not only boys, but girls, should acquire a knowledge of the laws of their organization. If sound morality depends upon the inculcation of correct principles in youth, equally so does a sound physical system depend on a correct physical education during the same period of life. If the teacher and parents who are deficient in moral feelings and sentiments, are unfit to communicate to children and youth those high moral principles demanded by the nature of man, so are they equally incompetent directors of the physical training of the youthful system, if ignorant of the organic laws and the physiological conditions upon which health and disease depend.

For these reasons, the study of the structure of the human system, and the laws of the different organs, are subjects of interest to all, — the young and the old, the learned and tlje unlearned, the rich and the poor. Every scholar, and particularly every young miss, after acquiring a knowledge of the primary branches, — as spelling, reading, writing, and arithmetic, — should learn the structure of the human system, and 1* b PREFACE.

the conditions upon which health and disease depend, as this knowledge will be required in practice in after life.

" It is somewhat unaccountable," says Dr. Dick, " and not a little inconsistent, that while we direct the young to look abroad over the surface of the earth, and survey its mountains, rivers, seas, and continents, and guide their views to the regions of the firmament, where they may contemplate the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and thousands of luminaries placed at immeasurable distances, * * that we should never teach them to look into themselves ; to consider their own corporeal structures, the numerous parts of which they are composed, the admirable functions they perform, the wisdom and goodness displayed in their mechanism, and the lessons of practical instruction which may be derived from such contemplations. 1 '

Again he says, "One great practical end which should always be kept in view in the study of physiology, is the invigoration and improvement of the corporeal powers and functions, the preservation of health, and the prevention of disease."

The design of the following pages is, to diffuse in the community, especially among the youth, a knowledge of Human Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. To make the work clear and practical, the following method has been adopted : —

1st. The structure of the different organs of the system has been described in a clear and concise manner. To render this description more intelligible, one hundred and fifty engravings have been introduced, to show the situation of the various organs. Hence the work may be regarded as an elementary treatise on anatomy.

PREFACE. 7

2d. The functions, or uses of the several parts have been briefly and plainly detailed ; making a primary treatise on human physiology.

3d. To make a knowledge of the structure and functions of the different organs practical, the laws of the several parts, and the conditions on which health depends, have been clearly and succinctly explained. Hence it may be called a treatise on the principles of hygiene, or health.

To render this department more complete, there has been added the appropriate treatment for burns, wounds, hemorrhage from divided arteries, the management of persons asphyxiated from drowning, carbonic acid, or strangling, directions for nurses, watchers, and the removal of disease, together with an Appendix, containing antidotes for poisons, so that persons may know what should he done, and what should not he done, until a surgeon or physician can be called.

In attempting to effect this in a brief elementary treatise designed for schools and families, it has not been deemed necessary to use vulgar phrases for the purpose of being understood. The appropriate scientific term should be applied to each organ. No more effort is required to learn the meaning of a proper, than an improper term. For example : a child will pronounce the word as readily, and obtain as correct an idea, if you say lungs, as if you used the word lights. A little effort on the part of teachers and parents, would diminish the number of vulgar terms and phrases, and, consequently, improve the language of our country. To obviate all objections to the use of proper scientific terms, a Glossary has been appended to the work.

8 PREFACE.

The author makes no pretensions to new discoveries in physiological science. In preparing the anatomical department, the able treatises of Wilson, Cruveilhier, and others have been freely consulted. In the physiological part, the splendid works of Carpenter, Dunglison, Liebig, and others have been perused. In the department of hygiene many valuable hints have been obtained from the meritorious works of Combe, Rivers, and others.

We are under obligations to R. D. Mussey, M. D., formerly Professor of Anatomy and Surgery, Dartmouth College, N. H., now Professor of Surgery in the Ohio Medical College ; to J. E. M'Girr, A. M., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Physiology, and Chemistry, St. Mary's University, 111. ; to F. Merrick, M. D., Professor of Anatomy, in Starling Medical College, O. ; to Rev. E. Hitchcock, D. D., President of Amherst College, Mass., who examined the revised edition of this work, and whose valuable suggestions rendered important aid in preparing the manuscript for the present stereotype edition.

We return our acknowledgments for the aid afforded by the Principals of the several Academies and Normal Schools, who formed classes in their institutions, and examined the revised edition as their pupils progressed, thus giving the work the best possible test trial, namely, the recitation-room.

To the examination of an intelligent public, the work is respectfully submitted by

CALVIN CUTTER.

Boston, January 1, 1849.

TO TEACHERS AND PARENTS.

As the work is divided into chapters, the subjects of which are complete in themselves, the pupil may commence the study of the structure, use, and laws of the several parts of which the human system is composed, by selecting such chapters as fancy or utility may dictate, without reference to their present arrangement, — as well commence with the chapter on the digestive organs as on the bones.

The acquisition of a correct pronunciation of the technical words is of great importance, both in recitation and in conversation. In this work, the technical words interspersed with the text, have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables designated. An ample Glossary of technical terms has also been appended to the work, to which reference should be made.

It is recommended that the subject be examined in the form of topics. The questions in Italics are designed for this method of recitation. The teacher may call on a pupil of the class to describe the anatomy of an organ from an anatomical outline plate ; afterwards call upon another to give the physiology of the part, while a third may state the hygiene, after

10 TO TEACHERS AND PARENTS.

which, the questions at the bottom of the page maybe asked promiscuously, and thus the detailed knowledge of the subject possessed by the pupils will be tested.

At the close of the chapters upon the Hygiene of the several portions of the system, it is advised that the instructor give a lecture reviewing the anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, of the topic last considered. This may be followed by a general examination of the class upon the same subject. By this course a clear and definite knowledge of the mutual relation of the Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, of different parts of the human body, will be presented.

We also suggest the utility of the pupils' giving analogous illustrations, examples, and observations, where these are interspersed in the different chapters, not only to induce inventive thought, but to discipline the mind.

To parents and others we beg leave to say, that about two thirds of the present work is devoted to a concise and practical description of the uses of the important organs of the human body, and to show how such information may be usefully applied, both in the preservation of health, and the improvement of physical education. To this have been added directions for the treatment of those accidents which are daily occurring in the community, making it a treatise proper and profitable for the family library, as well as the school-room.

Contents

Chapter. Page.

1. General Remarks, 13

3. Chemistry of the Human Body, 25

Chapter I. General Remarks

1. Anatomy is the term applied to the description of the mechanism, or structure, of the parts of the system. It properly signifies the art of dissecting, or artificially separating the different parts of the animal body.

2. Physiology is the science of the properties and functions of animals and plants. Animal physiology is divided into Human and Comparative.

3. Human Physiology treats of the laws by which the various functions in man are performed.

4. Comparative Physiology treats of the functions of the inferior animals.

5. Vegetable Physiology treats exclusively of plants.

6. Hygiene is the art of preserving health, or that department of medicine which treats of the preservation of health.

7. The kingdom of nature is divided into organic and inorganic bodies. Organic bodies possess organs, on whose action depend their growth and perfection. This division includes animals and plants. Inorganic bodies are devoid of

1. What is anatomy ? 2. What is physiology ? How is animal physiology divided? 3. Of what does human physiology treat? 4. Comparative physiology ? 5. Vegetable physiology ? 6. What is hygiene ? 7. Define organic bodies. Define inorganic bodies.

organs, or instruments of life. In this division are classed the earths, metals v and other minerals.

8. In general, organic matter differs so materially from inorganic, that the one can readily be distinguished from the other. In the organic world, the parts are mutually dependent on each other for support. Break the tiny stem of a rose, and it soon withers ; or girdle the bark of the forest tree, and it dies, because it cannot receive support from the ascending sap. So in man ; amputate an arm, and its vitality ceases, for the vessels communicating with it have been severed. But, in inorganized bodies, the results are different. Break off a piece of flint, and it is exempt from those internal changes and effects which impair and finally destroy organic structure and arrangement.

9. " Organized bodies always present a combination of both solids and fluids ; — of solids, differing in character and properties, arranged into organs, and these endowed with functional powers, and so associated as to form of the whole a single system; — and of fluids, contained in these organs, and holding such relation to the solids that the existence, nature, and properties of both mutually and necessarily depend on each other.

10. " Every inorganic body consists wholly either of the solid, liquid, or gaseous, form of matter ; and all its parts are alike in structure and properties, and may exist as well when separated, into portions or broken into fragments, as when united in a single volume or mass. But whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, whether composed of one or more of the chemical elements, the aggregations and arrangements of the atoms of matter, in every substance, take place according to fixed, constitutional laws, and in a regular and determinate manner ;

8. Show the difference between organic and inorganic bodies. 9. "What do organized bodies always present ? 10. In what forms do inorganic bodies exist ? What distinctive difference between inorganic and organic bodies ?

GENERAL REMARKS. 15

so that the intimate structure of each form of matter is always in accordance with its own nature.' 1

11. Organized bodies increase in size by a process called nutrition, which consists in imbibing substances and converting them to their own nature, by means of internal organs. They have, within a certain range, their specific proportions, shape, and size, by which they are not only distinguished from inorganic bodies, but specifically from each other. Inorganic bodies, on the contrary, increase in size, or change in shape, by the simple accretion of matter to their surfaces. Thus it will be seen that organized bodies augment in bulk from within, and inorganized bodies from without.

12. Though animals and vegetables derive their origin from preexisting bodies of the same kind, and possess the faculties of nutrition and reproduction, yet the animal kingdom is as distinct from the vegetable as the latter is from the mineral kingdom. The fundamental endowments which distinguish animals from vegetables are sensation and voluntary motion. The latter are destitute of these qualities. Another characteristic of animals is the predominance of the fluid over the solid parts. This causes them to decompose sooner than vegetables.

13. The differences between the animal and vegetable kingdoms are, in general, sufficiently obvious ; but, in some few instances, their distinguishing characteristics are not so evident. In the lowest order of animals, as the sponge, coral, &c, we find them to be as firmly attached to the soil as most vegetables ; while, on the other hand, some vegetables are never attached to the soil, but float in the water, as many kinds of sea-weed.

14. All organized bodies have a limited period of life,

11. How do organized bodies increase in bulk ? Inorganic ? 12. What are the fundamental endowments which distinguish animals from vegetables ? What is another characteristic of animals ? 13. What is said of the differences between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ? 14. What is said of the life of organized bodies ?

which varies with every species. In some the period is limited to a single day, — in many plants, to a single summer ; while some animals live more than a century, as the elephant ; and some trees, as a species of oak, and the olive, are supposed to live a thousand years. The duration of life is shortened by disease, and rarely occurs to vegetables or animals in their native condition, while man is so subject to it that his average length of life is less than half its natural period.

15. Disease, however, is under the control of fixed laws, which we are capable of understanding and obeying. Nor do diseases come by chance ; they are penalties for violating physical laws. If we carelessly cut or bruise our flesh, pain and soreness follow, to induce us to be more careful in the future ; or, if we take improper food into the stomach, we are warned, perhaps immediately by a friendly pain, that we have violated an organic law.

16. Sometimes, however, the penalty does not directly follow the sin, and it requires great physiological knowledge to be able to trace the effect to its true cause. If we possess good constitutions, we are responsible for most of our sickness ; and bad constitutions, or hereditary diseases, are but the results of the same great law, — the iniquities of the parents being visited on the children. In this view of the subject, how important is the study of physiology and hygiene ! For how can we expect to obey laws which we do not understand ?

15. "What is said of disease ? 16. Why is the study of physiology and hygiene important ?

Chapter II. Structure Of Man

17. In the structure of the human body, there is a union of fluids and solids. These are essentially the same, for the one is readily changed into the other. There is no fluid that does not contain solid matter in solution, and no solid matter that is destitute of fluid.

18. In different individuals, and at different periods of life, the proportion of fluids and solids varies. In youth, the fluids are more abundant than in advanced life. For this reason, the limbs in childhood are soft and round, while in old age they assume a hard and wrinkled appearance.

19. The fluids not only contain the materials from which every part of the body is formed, but they are the medium for conveying the waste, decayed particles of matter from the system. They have various names, according to their nature and function ; as, the blood, and the bile.

20. The solids are formed from the fluids, and consequently they are reduced, by chemical analysis, to the same ultimate elements. The particles of matter in solids are arranged either in fibres (threads) or lam'in-cB (plates.) These are so disposed as to form small spaces, called cells.

21. The parts of the body are arranged into Fil'a-ments, Fi'bres, Tis'sues, Or'gans, Ap-pa-ra'tas-es, and Sys'tems.

17. "What substances enter into the structure of the human body ? Are they essentially the same ? 18. What is said of these substances at different periods of life ? 19. What offices do the fluids of the system perform? 20. What is said of the solids ? How are the particles of matter arranged in solids ? 21. Give an arrangement of the parts of the body. 2*

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.

22. A filament is composed of minute particles of matter, arranged in a row.

23. A fibre is composed of several filaments united, each of which is enclosed in a sheath.

24. A tissue is the interlacement or union of fibres ; as, the cellular tissue.

25. An organ is composed of tissues so arranged as to form an instrument designed for action. The action of an organ is called its function, or use.

Example. The liver is an organ, and the secretion of the bile from the blood is one of its functions.*

26. An apparatus is an assemblage of organs designed to produce certain results.

Example. The digestive apparatus consists of the teeth, stomach, liver, &c, all of which aid in the digestion of food.

Fig. 2. 1. A fibre enclosed in its sheath. 2. A filament very highly magnified. 3. A fibre greatly magnified.

27. The term system is applied to an assemblage of organs arranged according to some plan, or method ; as the nervous system, the respiratory system.

* "Where examples and observations are given or experiments suggested, let the pupil mention other analogous ones.

22. Define a filament. 23. Define a fibre. 24. Define a tissue. 25. Define an organ. What is the action of an organ called ? Give examples. Mention other examples. 26. What is an apparatus ? Give an example. 27. How is the term system applied ?

28. A membrane is the simplest form of organized animal substance. It is flexible, and formed of fibres interwoven like net-work ; as, the mucous membrane.

29. However various all organs may appear in their structure and composition, it is now supposed that they can be reduced to five simple membranes, namely, the Cel'lu-lar, Mus'cu-lar, Ner'vous, Mem'bra-nous, and Os'se-ous.

30. The cellular membrane extends throughout all parts of the body. It is composed of small fibres, of every variety of shape and size, running in every possible direction, forming a net-like arrangement. In some situations, these fibres are narrow, loose, and comparatively distant. In others, they are broad and close, so as to form partial cells, which communicate with each other. These cells are prevented from adhering by a fluid secreted from the blood.

Fix. 3.

Fig. 3. A representation of a single film of the cellular membrane raised and slightly distended.

Observations. 1st. When this fluid becomes too great in quantity, in consequence of disease, the patient labors under general dropsy. The swelling of the feet when standing, and their return to a proper shape during the night, so often noticed in feeble persons, furnish a striking proof both of the

28. "What is a membrane ? 29. "What is said respecting the structure and composition of the various organs ? Name the primary membranes. 30. How is the cellular membrane formed? How are the cells prevented from adhering ? Give observation 1st, relative to the cellular membrane.

existence and peculiarity of this membrane, which allows the fluid to flow from cell to cell, until it settles in the lower extremities.

2d. The free communication between the cells is still more remarkable in regard to air. Sometimes, when an accidental opening has been made from the air-cells of the lungs into the contiguous cellular tissue, the air in respiration has penetrated every part until the whole body is so inflated as to occasion suffocation. Butchers often avail themselves of the knowledge of this fact, and inflate their meat to give it a fat appearance.

31. " Although this tissue enters into the composition of all organs, it never loses its own structure, nor participates in the functions of the organ of which it forms a part. Though present in the nerves, it does not share in their sensibility ; and though it accompanies every muscle and every muscular fibre, it does not partake of the irritability which belongs to these organs."

32. The varieties of membrane, formed from the cellular, are, the Ad'i-pose, Se'rous, Mu'cous, Derm'oid, Fi'brous, Car-ti-lag'in-ous, and the Os'se-ous.

33. The adipose membrane, or tissue, is so arranged as to form distinct bags, or cells. These contain a substance called fat. This tissue is principally found beneath the skin, abdominal muscles, and around the heart and kidneys ; while none is found in the brain, eye, ear, nose, a*«id several other organs.

Observation. In those individuals who are corpulent, there is, in many instances, a great deposit of this substance. This tissue accumulates more readily than others when a person becomes gross, and is earliest removed when the system emaciates, in acute or chronic diseases. Some of the masses,

Give observation 2d. 31. What is said of the identity of this membrane ? 32. Name the varieties of membrane formed from the cellular. 33. Describe the adipose membrane. Where does this tissue principally exist ? Give observation in regard to the adipose tissue.

STRUCTURE OF MAN.

called pel'i-tongs, become, in some instances, enlarged. These enlargements are called adipose, or fatty tumors.

34. The serous membrane lines all the closed, or sac-like cavities of the body ; as, the chest, joints, and abdomen. It not only lines these cavities, but is reflected, and invests the organs contained in them. The liver and the lungs are thus invested. This membrane is of a whitish color, and smooth on its free surfaces. These surfaces are kept moist, and prevented from adhering by a se'rous fluid, which is separated from the blood. The use of this membrane is to separate organs, and also to facilitate the movement of one part upon another, by means of its moist, polished surfaces.

Fig, 4. 1, A portion of the adipose membrane 2, 2, 2, Minute bags containing fat. 3, A cluster of these bags, separated and suspended.

35. The mucous membrane differs from the serous by its lining all the cavities which communicate with the air. The nostrils, the mouth, and the stomach afford examples. The external surface of this membrane, or that which is exposed to the air, is soft, and bears some resemblance to the downy

34. Where is the serous membrane found ? "What two offices does it perform ? Give its structure. What is the use of this membrane ? 35. How does the mucous differ from the serous membrane ? What is the appearance of the external surface of this membrane ?

rind of a peach. It is covered by a viscid fluid, called mu'cus; this is secreted by small glands, which are situated in the substance of the membrane. The use of this membrane is to protect the inner surfaces of the cavities which it lines.

Observation. A remarkable sympathy exists between the remote parts of the mucous membrane. Thus the condition of the stomach may be ascertained by an examination of the tongue.

36. The dermoid membrane covers the outside of the body. It is called the cu'tis, (skin.) This membrane is continuous with the mucous at the various orifices of the body, and in these situations, from the similarity of their structure, it is difficult to distinguish between them.

Observations. 1st. In consequence of the continuity and similarity of structure, there is close sympathy between the mucous and dermoid membranes. If the functions of the skin are disturbed, as by a chill, it will frequently cause a catarrh, (cold,) or diarrhoea. Again, in consequence of this intimate sympathy, these complaints can be relieved by exciting a free action in the vessels of the skin.

2d. It is no uncommon occurrence that diseased or irritated conditions of the mucous membrane of the stomach or intestines produce diseases or irritations of the skin, as is seen in the rashes attendant on dyspepsia, and eating certain species of fish. These eruptions of the skin can be relieved by removing the diseased condition of the stomach.

37. The fibrous tissue consists of longitudinal, parallel fibres, which are closely united. These fibres, in some situations, form a thin, dense, strong membrane, like that which

What is the use of this membrane ? "Why does the tongue indicate the state of the stomach ? 38. Describe the dermoid membrane. What is said of the sympathy between the functions of the skin and mucous membrane ? Give another instance of the sympathy between these membranes. 37. Of what does the fibrous tissue consist ? How do these appear in some situations ?

lines the internal surface of the skull, or invests the external surface of the bones. In other instances, they form strong, inelastic bands, called lig'a-ments, which bind one bone to another. This tissue also forms ten'dons, (white cords,) by which the muscles are attached to the bones.

Observation. In the disease called rheumatism, the fibrous tissue is the part principally affected ; hence the joints, where this membrane is most abundant, suffer most from this affection.

38. The cartilaginous tissue is firm, smooth, and highly elastic. Except bone, it is the hardest part of the animal frame. It tips the ends of the bones that concur in forming a joint. Its use is to facilitate the motion of the joints by its smooth surface, while its elastic character diminishes the shock that would otherwise be experienced if this membrane were inelastic.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. A section of the femur, (thigh-bone.) 1, 1, The extremities, showing a thin phite of compact texture, which covers small cells, that diminish in size, but increase in' number, as they approach the articulation. 2, 2, The wails of the shaft, which are very firm and solid. 3, The cavity that contains the marrow.

39. The osseous tissue, in composition and arrangement of matter, varies at different periods of life, and in different bones. In some instances, the bony matter is disposed in plates, while in other instances, the arrangement is cylindrical. Sometimes, the bony matter is dense and compact ; again, it is

How in others ? What tissue is generally affected in rheumatism ? 38. Describe the cartilaginous tissue. What is its use ? 39. What is said of the osseous tissue ? How is the bony matter arranged in different parts of the animal frame ?

spongy, or porous. In the centre of the long bones, a space is left which is filled with a fatty substance, called mar 1 row.

Observation. Various opinions exist among physiologists in regard to the use of marrow. Some suppose it serves as a reservoir of nourishment, while others, that it keeps the bones from becoming dry and brittle. The latter opinion, however, has been called in question, as the bones of the aged man contain more marrow than those of the child, and they are likewise more brittle.

40. The muscular membrane is composed of many filaments, that unite to form fibres, each of which is enclosed in a delicate layer of cellular membrane. Bundles of these fibres constitute a muscle*

Observation. A piece of boiled beef will clearly illustrate the arrangement of muscular fibre.

41. The nervous tissue consists of soft, pulpy matter, enclosed in a sheath, called neu-ri-lem'a. This tissue consists of two substances. The one, of a pulpy character and gray color, is called cin-e-ri'tions, (ash-colored.) The other, of a fibrous character and white, is named med'ul-la-ry, (marrowlike.) In every part of the nervous system both substances are united.

"What is said of the use of marrow ? 40. Of what is the muscular tissue composed ? How may the arrangement of muscular fibre be illustrated ? 41. Of what does the nervous tissue consist ? Describe the two substances that enter into the composition of the nervous tissue.

CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 25

Chapter III. — - Chemistry Of The Human Body

42. The term ultimate elements is used in speaking of the chemical composition of the human body.

43. The ultimate elements are divided into metallic and non-metallic substances. The metallic substances are Potas'si-um, So'di-um, Cal'ci-um, Mag-ne'si-um, A-lu'min-um, I'ron, Man'ga-nese, and Cop'per. The non-metallic substances are Ox'y-gen, Hy'dro-gen, Car'bon, Ni'tro-gen, Si-Wci-um, Phos'phor-us, Sul'phur, Chlo'rine, and a few others.

44. Potash (potassium united with oxygen) is found in the blood, bile, perspiration, milk, &c.

45. Soda (sodium combined with oxygen) exists in the muscles, and in the same fluids in which potash is found.

46. Lime (calcium combined with oxygen) forms the principal ingredient of the bones. The lime in them is combined with phosphoric and carbonic acid.

47. Magnesia (magnesium combined with oxygen) exists in the bones, brain, and in some of the animal fluids; as milk.

48. Silex (silicium combined with oxygen) is contained in the hair and in some of the secretions.

49. Iron forms the coloring principle of the red globules of the blood, and is found in every part of the system.