First book on anatomy, physiology, and hygiene : for grammar schools and families : with eighty-three engravings

Front matter

FIRST BOOK

.

natomy, Physiology, mm

Preface

In presenting this work to the public, the author would indulge in a few prefatory suggestions

Education, to be complete, must be not only moral and intellectual, but physical. As the culture of the mind and of the affections is the subject of systematic attention in early life, should not the education of the physical powers be commenced as early ? It will demand no more maturity and thought to understand the reasons for adequate clothing, bathing, the necessity of an erect position in standing and sitting, regularity in taking food, the supply of pure air to the lungs, & c., than to comprehend geographical details or moral truths. Is not a knowledge of the laws upon which health depends, as important to the development of a vigorous physical constitution, \s moral instruction is to the formation of correct moral principles ? Can any reason be given why both should not be taught in the school-room ?

A child should be taught to call each organ by its correct name. No more effort is required to learn the meaning of a proper , than an improper term. For example : a child will pronounce the word as readily, and obtain as correct an idea, if you say lungs , as if you used the word lights.

In preparing tnis work, it has not been deemed necessary to use low, vulgar terms, for the purpose of being understood ; but such words have been selected

VI

PREFACE.

as good usage sanctions. Should the pupil meet witn any word he does not understand, let him consult his dictionary, as he should do in perusing works upon history, when a similar difficulty occurs.

To insure a correct pronunciation of the technical words interspersed with the text, they have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables designated. An ample Glossary of technical terms has aiso been appended to the work, to which reference should be made.

To the teacher we would suggest the propriety of calling on a pupil of the class, to describe the anatomy of an organ from an anatomical outline plate ; afterwards call upon another to give the physiology of the part, while a third may state the hygiene ; aftei which, the questions at the bottom of the page may be asked promiscuously, and thus the detailed knowledge which each pupil possesses of the subject will be tested.

With advanced pupils, it is recommended that the subject be examined in the form of topics. The questions in Italics are designed for this method of recitation.

For a more full and complete explanation of Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, the pupil is referred to the Author’s treatise, of 450 pages, for Colleges, Academies, and Families, or to his second book, of 300 pages, for Academies, Schools, and Families.

To the instructors of youth, and the patrons of education, this work is respectfully submitted.

Warren, Mass ., 1852

Contents

Cbapter. P age

1 General Remarks, 9

3. Anatomy of the Bones, continued, 16

Chapter I. General Remarks

1. Anatomy is a description of the organs , or parts of a oody.

Examples. 1st. Flowers have roots, stems, and blossoms. These are their organs. 2d. The teeth, stomach, and heart, are some of the organs of the human body.*

2. Physiology is a description of the function, or use of an organ.

Examples. 1st. The roots of flowers suck up water, to make them grow. This is their function. 2d. The stomach, in man, is one of the organs that prepare the food for his growth. This is its function.

3. Anatomy and Physiology are divided into two kinds, namely, Animal and Vegetable.

* Where examples are given, let the pupil mention other analo* gous ones.

1. What is anatomy ? Give examples. 2. What is physiology ? Giva examples. 3. How many kinds of anatomy and physiology are there i

GENERAL REMARKS.

4. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again divided into Human and Comparative.

5. Human Anatomy and Physiology describe the structure and functions of the organs of man.

6. Comparative Anatomy and Physiology describe the structure and functions of the organs of other animals than man.

Examples. As the horse, the monkey, and the whale.

7. Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology describe the structure and functions of different parts of trees, shrubs, plants, and flowers.

8. Hygiene is the art of preserving health, or that department of medicine which treats of the preservation of health.

9. All bodies in nature are divided into Organic and Inorganic. Organic bodies include animals and plants. Inorganic bodies include earths, metals, and other minerals.

10. All organized bodies have a limited period of life, and this period varies with every species. The duration of some plants is limited to a single summer, as many garden flowers ; while some trees, as the olive, live many hundred years. Some animals live but a short time, while the elephant lives more than a century.

11. The life of man is shortened by disease ; but disease is under the control of fixed laws — laws which we are capable of understanding and obeying. How important, then, is the study of physiology and hygiene ! For how can we expect to obey laws which we do not understand ?

4. How are animal anatomy and physiology divided ? 5. What do human anatomy and physiology describe ? 6. What do comparative anatomy and physiology describe ? 7. What do vegetable anatomy and physiology describe ? 8. What is hygiene ? 9. How are all bodies in nature divided ? What bodies are called organic ? "What bodies are called inorganic ? 10. Have all animals and plants a limited period. of life ? Does

this period vary with different species of animals and plants ? Give some examples. 1 1. How is life usually shortened ? Why is the study of physiology and ny giene important to every person ?

ANATOMY OF THE BONES.

Chapter II. The Bones

12. The bones are firm and hard, and of a dull white color In all the higher orders of animals, among which is man, they are in the interic r of the body, while in lobsters, crabs, &c., they are on the outside, forming a case, which protects the movable parts from injury.

ANATOMY OF THE BONES.

13. There are two hundred and eight * bones in the human body, beside tne teeth.

14. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts: 1st. The bones of the Head. 2d. The bones of the Trunk. 3d. Tne bones of the Upper Extremities. 4th. The bones of the Lower Extremities.

15. The bones of the head are divided into those of the Skull , Ear , and Face.

16. The skull is formed of eight bones. These are joined together by ragged edges, called sut'ures. (Fig. 2.)

Observation. The sutures stop, in a measure, the jars caused by external blows. Children should never strike each

* Some anatomists.reckon more than this number, others less, for the reason that, at different periods of life, the number of pieces of which one bone is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in infancy, has eight pieces ; in youth, three ; in old age, but one.

12. Describe the bones. 13. How many bones in the human body? 14. How are they divided? Name them. 15 — 18. Give the anatomy of th* bones of the head. 15. How are the bones of the head divided ? 16. How many bones in the skull ? How are the bones of the skull joined togethei *

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.

other upon the head, because the bones of the skull in them are softer than in adults.

17. In each ear are four small bones. They aid in hearing.

18. In the face are fourteen bones. They support the softer parts outside of them.

19. The trunk has fifty-four bones — twenty-four Ribs, twenty-four bones in the Spinal Col'umn , (back-bone ;) four in the Pelvis; the Ster'num , (breast-bone;) and one at the root of the tongue.

20. All the ribs are joined to the spinal column. There are twelve on each side.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. The bones of the upper part of the skull, i, 1,2, 3, 3, The sutures that join the bones.

21. The seven upper ribs are united in front to the sternum by a yielding substance called car'ti-lage ,* (gristle.) The

* See paragraph 46.

17. What is the use of sutures ? How many bones in each ear ? What is their use ? J£. xiow many bones in the face? 19 — 29. Give the anato

my of the bones of the trunk. 19. How many bones in the trunk ? Name them. 20. To what are all the ribs joined ? How many on each side ? What does fig. 2 represent? 21. How are the first seven ribs united in trout?

ANATOMY OF THE BONES.

remaining five are not attached, directly, to the sternum. Thrpe are joined to each other by cartilage ; two are not con fined ; hence they are called 44 floating ribs.”

22. The cavity formed by the sternum, ribs, and spinal column, is called the Chest. It contains the heart, lungs, and large blood-vessels.

23. The shape of the chest is conical, or like a sugar-loaf.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. The form of the chest. 1, 2, 3, The sternum, (breast-bone.) 4, 5, The spinal column, (back-bone.) 6, 7, 8, 9, The first rib. 10, The seventh rib. 11, The cartilage of the third rib. 12, The floating ribs.

Observation. The lower part of the chest is broader and fuller than the upper part, when it is not made smaller by tight clothing.

The next three ? What are the last two called ? Why ? Describe fig. 3. 22. How is the chest formed ? What does it contain ? 23. What is the shape of the chest ? How does the lower part of the chest compare iu size with the upper >

24. The spinal* column is composed of twenty-foui pieces of bone. Each piece is called a vert'e-bra.

25. Between the pieces, or vertebrae, is a thick piece of cartilage, which is elastic, or springs like India-rubber. This not only unites the vertebrae, but permits them to move in different ways.

26. There is an opening in each vertebra. By a union of these openings, a canal is formed the whole length of the spinal column in which the spinal cord (pith of the back-bone) is placed.

Fig 4. The form of a vertebra of the neck. 1, The main portion of tte bone. 2, The spinal canal, in which the spinal cord is placed. 4, 5, 7, 8, Points, r projections of the vertebra.

Fig. 5. 1, The cartilage that connects the vertebrae. 3, 4, 5, 6, Points, r projections of the vertebra. 7, The spinal canal.

Observation. A good idea of the structure of the vertebrae maybe obtained, by examining the spinal column of a domestic animal, as the dog, cat, or pig.

* From the Latin spi'na , a thorn ; so called from the points of the vertebrae that are felt beneath the skin.

24. How many pieces of bone in the spinal column ? "What is each piece called ? 25. What is placed between the vertebrae ? Give its use. 26. How is the spinal canal formed, and what does it contain ? Describe fig. 4. Describe fig 5. How may an idea of the structure of the verteorae be obtained ?

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

27. The spinal column is a very curious and perfect piece of mechanical art. By its structure, great strength ana sufficient movement or flexibility are combined. The vertebra are so firmly joined together, that dislocation of them, without fracture, is very rare.

28. The pelvis is composed of four bones. They are so arranged as to form a bony basin. The spinal column rests on these bones, and they also serve to support the lower extremities.

Fig. 0.

Fig. 6. 1, 1, The hip-bones. 2, Th9 sacrum, upon which the spinal coiumn

re its. 3, The extremity of the spinal column, named the coc'cyx. 4, 4, The cavities for the head of the thigh-bone.

29. In the sides of these bones is a deep, round cavity, called a-ce-tab'u-lum , in which the head of the thigh-bone is placed.

27. What is said of the structure of the spinal column ? 28. Of how many bones is the pelvis composed ? What is their use ? Describe fig. 6 29. What is found in the sides of these bones ?

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.

Chapter III. Anatomy Of The Bones, Continued

30. The upper extremities contain sixty-four bones — the Scap'u-la, (shoulder-blade;) the Clav'i-cle , (collar-bone;) and the bones of the Arm, Fore-arm, Wrist , and Hand.

31. The scapula is a broad, irregular bone, situated upon the upper and back part of the chest.

32. The clavicle is a thin bone at the base of the neck. It is joined at one extremity to the sternum, at the other to the scapula.

Observation. The use of the clavicle is to keep the arms from sliding toward the breast. Children should frequently throw their arms backward, as this exercise would tend to increase the length of this bone, and also to enlarge the chest

33. The arm is formed of a single bone, called the liu'- mer-us.

34. The fore-arm is formed of two bones — the ul'na , on the inner side, and the ra'di-us , on the outside, (the side on which the thumb is placed.) By a beautiful arrangement of these bones, the hand is made to rotate , or turn, permitting its complicated and varied movements.

35. The wufiST is formed of eight irregular bones. They move but little upon each other.

36. The hand consists of nineteen bones — five in the palm, and fourteen bones in the fingers and thumb.

30 — 37- Give the anatomy of the bones of the upper extremities. 30. Name the bones of the upper extremities. 31. Describe the scapula. 32. Where is the clavicle situated ? What is the use of the clavicle ? 33. IIow is

the arm formed ? 34. The fore-arm ? 35. How many bones in the wrist ?

36. How many bones in the hand ?

ANATOMY OF THE BONES.

37. Each finger is formed of three bones of different lengths the thumb has but two. Proofs of a designing Creator are nowhere more manifest than in the simple but wonderful structure and adaptation of the human hand.

38. The lower extremities contain sixty bones — the Fe'mur, (thigh-bone ;) the Pa-tel'la, (knee-pan ;) the Tib'i-a (shin-bone;) the Fib'u-la, (small bone of the leg;) and the bones of the Foot.

39. The femur is the longest bone of the body. It supports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities.

Fig. 7. u, The ulna. R, The radius, s, L, c, P, U, M, T, T, The eight bones of the wrist. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, The five bones of the palm of the hand.

Fig. 8. 10, 10, 10, The bones of the palm of the hand 11, 12, 13, The bones ol die fingers. 14, 15, The bones of the thumb.

40. The tibia and the fibula are situated between the knee and ankle.

37. What is said of the bones of the fingers and thumb ? 38 — 41. Give the anatomy of the hones of the lower extremities. 38. Name the oones of the liwer extremities. 39. What is said of the femur ? Describe fig. 7. Fig. 8 40. What bones between the knee and

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

ankle ?

2 *

41. The foot is formed of twenty-six bones — seven in the instep ; five in the middle of the foot ; and fourteen toe-bones.

Observation. The bones of the foot are so united as to give it the form of an arch, — convex on its upper surface, and concave on the lower surface

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9. A view of the upper surface of the bones of tho foot. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 8, The bones of the instep. 9, 9, 9, The bones of the middle of the foot. 10, 11, Tht bcnes of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The bones of the small toes

Fig. 10

P g. 10. A side view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched form. The arch rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front. 1, The lower part of the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the instep. 6, A bone of the middle of the foot. 7, 8, The bones of the great toe.

42. The bones consist of animal matter, (jelly,) and earthy matter, (phosphate and carbonate of lime.)

41. How many bones in the foit, and name them ? What is the form of the foot? Describe fig. 9. Fig. 10? 42. Of what are the bonei

eomposed ?

ANATOMY OF THE BONES.

1*

43. To show the animal without the earthy matter of the bones, immerse a slender bone for a few days in a weak actu, (one part muriatic acid and six parts water,) and it can then be bent in any direction.

44. To show the earthy without the animal matter, burn a bone in a clear fire for about fifteen minutes, and it becomes white and brittle.

45. The joints form an interesting part of the body. They are composed of the extremities of two or more bones, Car'tilages , (gristles,) Syn-o'vi-al membrane, and Lig'a-ments

Fig. 11. The relative position of the bone, cartilage, and synovial membrane. I, 1, The extremities of two bones, to form a joint. 2, 2, The cartilage that covers the end of the bone. 3, 3, 3, 3, The synovial membrane, which covers the cartilage of both bones, and is then doubled back from one to the other; it is represented by the dotted lines.

Fig. 12. A vertical section of the knee-joint. 1, The femur. 3, The patella 5. The tibia. 2,4, Ligaments of the patella. 6. Cartilage of the tibia. 12, The cartilage of the femur. * * * *, The synovial membrane.

46. Cartilage is a smooth, solid, elastic substance, that covers the ends of the bones that form a joint. It prevents the ends of the bones from wearing off, and also diminishes the jar that the joint receives, in walking or leaping.

43. Hotv can the animal matter be shown ? 44. The earthy ? 45 — 48. De scribe the parts that form a joints 45. What is said of the joints ? Of what are they composed ? Whatisrepresentedbyfig.il? Fig. 12? 46. Define ■jartilage. What is its use ?

ANATOMY, THYSIO7 OGY, AND HYGIENE.

47. The synovial membrane is a thin, membranous layer which covers the cartilages, and is thence bent back, or reflected upon the inner surfaces of the ligaments which surround and enter into the composition of the joints. This membrane forms a closed sac. (Fig. 11.)

48. The ligaments are strong, inelastic substances ; they serve to connect ani bind together the bones of the body.

Fig. 13. 8, 9, The ligaments that extend from the hip-bone (6) to the thigh-

Fig. 14. 2, 3, The ligaments that extend from the collar-bone (1) to the shoulder blade, (4.) The ligaments 5, 6, extend from the shoulder-blade to the first bone of the arm.

Observation. The joints of the domestic animals, are similar in their construction to those of man. To illustrate this part of the body, a fresh joint of the calf or shoep may be used.

47. Define synovial membrane. 48. "What are ligaments ? What is their use ? "What is represented bv fig 13? Fig. 14? How can the structure of the joints be illustrated

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES.

Chapter IV. Physiology Of The Bones

49. The bones are the framework of the body. They support all the soft parts, as the flesh and vessels, and likewise afford a firm surface for the attachment of the ligaments.

50. The use of the various bones is different. Some protect organs, as those of the skull and chest, while others are used when we move, as those of the extremities and spinal column.

51. The bones are covered with a firm mem'brane , or skin, called per-i-os'te-um. This membrane and the bones, when healthy, give us but little pain if wounded ; but, if diseased, as in “ felons,” the pain is\ery severe.

52. The joints are constantly supplied ' with a fluid called syn-o'vi-a. This operates like oil on the joints of a machine. By the smooth cartilages and synovia, the joints are enabled to bear all the motion required of them during a great number of years.

53. The joints vary in their functions. Some are movable, as the finger-joints ; while others are immovable, as the sutures of the skull.

54. The union of the spinal column with the skull exhibits one of the most ingenious contrivances to be met with in the body. 1st. It permits the backward and forward movement, as in bowing and nodding the head. 2d. The motion which is made in turning the head from side to side.

49 — 51. Give the physiology of the bones. 49. What is the use of the bones ? 50. Give the function of some of the bones. 51. With what are the bones covered? 52 — 56. Give the physiology of the joints. 52. With what are the joints constantly supplied ? What is the use of this fluid and the cartilages ? 53. Mention some of the functions of the joints.

t>4. What is said of the union of the spinal column with the skull?

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A.ND HYGIENE.

55. This admirable piece of mechanism affords great pro tection to the spinal cord, at the top of the neck ; this being perhaps, the most vital portion of the whole body. Injury to it or pressure upon it, is instantly fatal.

56. Some joints move but in one direction, like a hinge of a door. These are called Hinge Joints ; as the ankle and the knee-joint. Some joints move in different directions, like a ball in a socket These are called Ball and Socket Joints ; as the shoulder and the hip-joint.

Fig. 15. The knee-joint. 1, The lower extremity of the thigh-bone. 3, 5, The two rounded extremities that rest upon the upper extremity of the tibia, (shin-bone.) 2, Two ligaments within the knee-joint. 6, 7, The cartilage that tips the upper extremity of the tibia, (4.)

Fig. 16. 2, The deep socket of the hip-joint. 5, The round head of the thigh-bone, which is lodged in the socket. 3, The ligament within the socket.

Observation. The more movable a joint, the less firm it is, and the more frequently dislocated, or “ put out.” It is for this reason that the shoulder-joint is more frequently displaced than any other in the body.

65. What is protected by this admirable piece of mechanism ? 5& What are hinge joints ? What are ball and socket joints ? Why is the shoulder joint more frequently dislocated than any other in the body?

PHVS’OLOGY OF THE BON^S.

Fig 17. 1, 1, The spinal column. 2, The skull. 3, The lower jaw. 4, The stemam. 5, The ribs. 6, 6, The cartilages of the ribs. 7, The clavicle. 8, The humerus. 9, Th« shoulder-joint. 10, The radius. 11, The ulna. 12, The elbow-joint. 13, The wrist. 14, The hand. 15, The haunch-bone. 16, The sacrum. 17, The hip-joint. 18, The thigh-bone. 19, The patella. 20, The knee-joint. 21, The fibula. 22, The tibia. 23, The ankle-joint. 24, The foot. 25, 26, The ligaments of the clavicle, sternum, and ribs. 27, 28, 29, The ligaments of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist. 30, The large artery of the arm. 31, The ligaments of the hip-joint. 32, The large blood-vessels of the thigh. 33, The artery of the leg. 34, 35,36, The ligaments of the patella, knee, and ankleu Note. Let the pupil, in form of topics, review the anatomy and physiology of the bones from fig. 17 or from anatomical outline plates 1 and 2.

ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE.

Z1

Chapter V. Hygiene Of The Bones

57. The hones require exercise to make them healthy. By use they are increased in size and strength to a limited extent, while inaction or disease weakens them. Exercise favors the deposition of the substances of which they are composed.

58. The exercise or labor should he adapted to the condition of the hones. The bones of a child contain more of the animal than the earthy matter, and are consequently weak; though the child is able to exercise, its bones are not adapted to severe toil. On the other hand, the bones of the aged man contain more earthy than animal matter. This causes them to be brittle and unfit for labor. But in middle age, the proportions of animal and earthy matter are, usually, such as to give the proper degree of flexibility and strength for labor, with little liability to injury.

Observation. The difference in the structure of the bones at different ages may be seen, by comparing the rib of a calf or lamb, with the rib of an ox or sheep.

59. The clothing should he loosely worn. The ribs and bones of the spinal column are soft and yielding in childhood. A small amount of pressure on the walls of the trunk will lessen the size of the chest, and thus injure the lungs, stomach, and heart.

60. In sitting, the feet of the child should he supported. If

57—63. Give the hygiene of the bones. 57. What effect has exercise npon the bones ? 58. Give the reasons why the amount of labor should be adapted to the condition of the bones. How can the difference in the structure of the bones at different ages be illustrated ? 59. Give a reason why the clothing should be loosely worn. 60. Why should the feet of thildren, when sitting, be supported ?

HYGIENE OF THE BONES.

the stool is so high as not to permit the feet to rest upon the floor, the weight of the limbs below' the knee may cause the flexible bone of the thigh to become curved. When the feet are not supported, the child is inclined to lean forward, contracting an injurious and ungraceful position.

Observation. The seats in school-rooms should not only be of such height as to enable the pupil to rest the feet on the floor, but they should have properly-constructed backs.

Fig. 18. The position assumed when the seat is ot proper height, and the feel supported.

Fig. 19. The position a child naturally assumes when the seat is so high that the feet are not supported.

61. Children should stand and sit erect. This position tends to keep the spinal column erect and healthy. When a slight curvature of the spine exists, it can be improved by walking with a book, or a heavier weight, upon the top of the head ; to

Should seats in a school-room have backs ? 61. Why should children stand and sit erect ?

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AN1) HYGIENE.

balance which, the spine must he nearly erect. Those people that carry their burdens upon their heads seldom have crooked spines.

62. Pupils, while writing, drawing, and sometimes while studying, frequently incline the spinal column to one side, in order to accommodate themselves to the desks at which they are seated. This position elevates one shoulder, while it depresses the other.

Fig. 20. A representation of a deformed spinal column. A well-firmed spinal column has three curves, two forward and one backward, (2, 2, 2, fig ^5,) but no lateral curvature, (1, 1, fig. 17.)

63. One shoulder may be thus elevated for a short time, and no injurious results follow, provided care is taken not to keep it in the raised position too long, or if the opposite shoulder is elevated for the same period of time.

"What is the effect of carrying burdens upon the head ? 62. What is the effect of pupils using desks that are too high or improperly constructed 63. How can one shoulder be elevated, and m injurious results follow?

ANATOMY OF THE MUSC2.ES.

CHAPTER Vi. THE MUSCLES

64. All the great motions of the body are caused by the movement of some of the bones which form the framework of the body ; but these, independently of themselves, have not the power of motion, and only change their position through the action of other organs attached to them, which, by contracting, or shrinking, draw the bones after them. In some of the slight movements, as the winking of the eye, no bones are displaced, or moved. These moving, contracting organs are the Mus'cle (lean meat.)

ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES.

65. A muscle is composed of many little strings, called fibres. Some of these fibres run in straight lines ; others spread like a fan ; while some are inclined like the feathery part of a quill. (Fig. 21.)

66. Toward the extremities of a muscle the fibres unite, and form a substance of a whitish color, harder and tougher than the muscle. This is called ten' don, (cord, sinew.)

Observation. The pupil can examine a piece of boiled beef, or the leg of a fowl, and see the structure of the fibres and tendons of a muscle, with the attachment of the tendons tc the bones.

67. Tendons have various shapes. Sometimes they are

64. Ilo<v are all the great motions of the body produced? What are these moving, contracting organs called ? 65 — 72. Give the structure of the muscles. 65. Of what is a muscle composed ? 66. What is a tendon ?