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THE

Preface

The value and importance of the study of Geography are so ob- ’' .us as to require little illustration. Nothing can be more interesti r to man, or can tend more to gratify a laudable thirst for know- 1 Ige, than a survey of the earth he inhabits, peopled as it is by bel gs of the same nature with himself, and filled with so many c ijects which excite the deepest interest. To visit and observe fo¬ ri ign countries is an object of general desire, and forms one of the r> ost effectual means for enlarging and enlightening the human mind. The wish of visiting foreign countries, however, can be gratified only to a very limited extent, except in the case of a few individuals, and m none can embrace more than a small portion of the vast variety of objects which the earth comprises. This defect, however, of personal . c’ nervation may be, in a great measure, supplied by collecting the n. t irts and narratives of those intelligent travellers who have explored and described its various regions, ana forming out of them a general description of the world ana its inhabitants.

Geographical works have always possessed a peculiar attraction; and even in ancient times, when the extent of the known world, and the information with respect to the inhabitants and productions of its remote regions, were so much more limited, the geographical descrip¬ tions rank among the most valuable productions of the classic ages; but in modern times, and particularly in the present age, geography has assumed a much more permanent place among the departments of human knowledge. The discovery of America in the fifteenth century awakened a spirit of enterprise, and a desire to explore un¬ known regions, that have continued to gain new strength. During the last half century, especially, the most civilized nations have been contending with each other for the glory of discovery; and there is now scarcely a shore, however remote, or the interior of a country, however barbarous or difficult, which has not been visited and de- ; scribed.

The extensive discoveries thus recently made have thrown a won¬ derful light on the structure and productions of the earth, and afforded large contributions to all the departments of natural history. They have also displayed man in every condition, from the highest refine¬ ment of civilized society to the most abject condition of savage life. These representations are not only interesting in themselves, but throw light on the history of past ages. Communities are still found exactly similar to those described in the earliest records of antiquity. The tent of the Arab sheik differs little from that which Abraham pitched on the plains of Mamre; and many of the Tartar tribes are a people exactly similar to those who roamed in early ages over the plains of Scythia.

PREFACE.

Besides the gratification thus afforded to liberal curiosity, a know¬ ledge of the remotest regions has become an object of the utmost practical importance. Regions the most distant to which a ship can sail are constantly visited by all commercial nations, and the manufac¬ turer labours to supply the markets of countries the very existence of which, fifty years ago, was unknown; while the circumnavigation of the globe, once considered as conferring immortal honour on the most daring navigators, has become an ordinary trading voyage. A know¬ ledge of geography, therefore, has become a necessary qualification for the pursuits of commerce and industry, and for much of the ordi¬ nary and current business of life.

While the great utility of the science of geography is thus rendered evident in facilitating the great interests of civilized society, it is gratifying to find that it has been cultivated with a zeal equal to its importance. Within a few years past, several geographical works, compiled with great labour, and exhibiting extensive researches into all the branches connected with the subject, have made their appear¬ ance, and enjoyed a well-merited celebrity. But, notwithstanding the great merit of some of these works, the Encyclopaedia of Geo¬ graphy, by Mr. Murray of Edinburgh, recently published, far sur¬ passes every other work of this kina which has ever appeared. In making it, therefore, the basis of an elementary treatise, and adapt¬ ing a work of such acknowledged excellence to the purposes of edu¬ cation, the author indulges the belief that he is conferring an essential and, he hopes, a permanent benefit on not a few of those who will shortly be among the most active in the busy scenes of life.

The numerous engravings which have been introduced are by no means intended for mere ornament, but embrace a great number of the leading objects of nature and art, which, it is believed, cannot fail to add greatly to the interest and utility of the work. In the mechanical execution of them, as well as the maps for the Atlas to accompany the work, no pains or expense has been spared; and the style in which they have been executed will, it is hoped, be found fully to correspond with the character of the work in other respects.

In adapting the details of the work to the purposes of practical in¬ struction, that course has been pursued which appeared to be best calculated to facilitate the progress of the student, and care has been taken to render available whatever the light of experience has proved to be best calculated for the promotion of that object. It is hoped, therefore, that the work will be of essential service to those who are desirous to obtain an adequate knowledge of this very important as well as pleasing science.

OBSERVATIONS TO TEACHERS.

Part First, comprising the principles of geography, may be omitted by young pupils, or by those whose time or opportunity is too limited to study more than those parts which treat of descriptive geography. The careful reading of Part I., either in classes or otherwise, is re¬ commended to those who are unable, from any cause, to study it more thoroughly. The lessons which precede Part II. are a compen¬ dium of some of the most important portions of Part I., and should always be carefully studied before entering on the succeeding part of the work, whether Part I. has been previously studied or not.

The careful study of the maps is of the utmost importance. To fa¬ cilitate this object, a great number of questions has been introduced; but the careful and judicious teacher will perceive the advantage of proposing many questions, as the pupil advances, which it would not be possible to present in a work oi this kind.

Iii order to acquire the requisite facility of reference to the maps, it would often be found advantageous for the pupil to go through the book for the first time, attending only to the questions on the maps, without reference to the descriptive parts of the work. The pupil will then be prepared to study the work thoroughly, with pleasure and advantage. The learner may be required to recite, either with or without the atlas before him, according to the degree of facility which has been acquired of prompt reference to the maps.

In order to impress a knowledge of the maps thoroughly on the mind, the student should often be required to draw the outline of countries, and put in some of the most important features, such as mountains, rivers, and cities, from memory. By this exercise the im¬ mediate object will not only be gained, but the memory and judgment will also be greatly cultivated and improved.

As the numerous engravings which have been introduced are not in¬ tended for mere ornament, the pupil should be required to describe each of them as they are presented. The beautiful views of objects, both of nature and art, contained in the work, with the extensive se¬ lection of rare and curious plants and animals, all of which are repre¬ sented as near to nature as art can make them, will render such an ex¬ ercise at once pleasant and instructive.

Perhaps there is no science, the study of which produces such a rapid developement of the youthful intellect, as that of geography. A knowledge of the science immediately under consideration, is, of course, the primary object in studying it, but the extraordinary influ¬ ence it possesses in developing the intellectual faculties, and prepar¬ ing the mind for more abstruse and difficult studies, is not of less im¬ portance.

Introduction

Geography consists in the description and delineation of the Earth. It considers that planet in respect to its form, its connexion with other bodies in the universe, the various parts into which it is divided, and the objects with which each is respectively filled.

The First Part comprises the principles of the science. These are,

I. Mathematical principles, or those which relate to the form of the earth, its movements, its place in the Solar System, the great circles by which it is divided, and the delineation of its surface on a map.

II. Physical principles, or those which treat of the substances which cover the eartfr s surface; the elements which compose and surround it; rock, earth, water, air, as they appear under the various forms of mountain, plain, river, sea, and all tne changing phenomena of the at¬ mosphere.

III. Geography may be considered in relation to other objects and sciences. 1. To Zoology, or the distribution of animals over the globe. 2. To Botany, or the diffusion of vegetable productions. 3. To the human race, and the various branches into which it has been formed, considered in relation to numbers, wealth, political union, social, intel¬ lectual, and moral condition.

The Second Part consists of Descriptive Geography, and considers the subject in detail, as it applies to the various quarters and countries into which the world is divided; this part will naturally divide itself into five general heads: 1. America. 2. Europe. 3. Asia. 4. Af¬

rica. 5. Australia.

What is geography ? In what respects does it consider our planet ? What does the first part of the work embrace ? Which are the mathematical prin¬ ciples ? Which are the physical principles ? YVhat does the third division of the principles of geography embrace ? What does descriptive geography embrace ? Which are the five general heads of descriptive geography ?

GENERAL VIEW.

Part First

1. GENERAL VIEW.

The succession of day and night brings under our notice the sun, the moon, and the stars, which appear like points on the concave sur¬ face of the. heavens.

The apparent motion of the earth about a fixed point in the northern quarter oi the sky, is familiar to every one.

If we change our position on the earth, by going al ways south, this fixed point appears to descend, and at last sinks below the horizon.

We then perceive that there is another fixed point in the southern region of the heavens, exactly opposite the first, about which the diur¬ nal motion is also performed. These two points are the north and south, or Arctic and Antarctic poles of the heavens.

To a spectator in any place on the earth, the whole system of hea¬ venly bodies appears as if placed on the surface of a concave sphere, the centre of which is the place where he stands.

This sphere appears to Tevolve daily on an ideal line, which passes through the poles of the heavens, and is called the Axis of the world.

Besides the diurnal, or daily motions of the heavenly bodies, which is common to them all, some of them have motions peculiar to them¬ selves, by which they change their places with respect to each other.

Thus we see the moon in about a month describe a circle quite round the heavens from west to east. The sun also appears to change his position daily, and to go round the heavens once in a year.

From the remotest antiquity, five stars, called planets, had been ob¬ served to change their position; and, in modern times, five others have been discovered. They are named Mercury, Venus, Mars, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus.

There are other luminous bodies, called comets, which are seen for a short time, and afterwards disappear. Their number is not known, but probably amounts to several thousand.

Besides the sun, moon, planets, and comets, there are other lumi¬ nous bodies visible every clear night, which always have the same position with respect to each other, and are therefore called fixed stars.

All the heavenly bodies which this general survey has brought un¬ der our notice, with their motions, form the subject of Astronomy, the most extensive of all the natural sciences.

What does the succession of day and night brh.g under our notice ? What of the apparent motion of the earth ? What occurs if we change our position on the earth ? What do we then perceive ? What are these two points called ? What appears to a spectator on any point of the earth ? On what does this sphere appear to revolve ? What of the motions of the heavenly bodies ? What motions of the sun and moon ? What had been observed respecting the planets ? What other luminous bodies ? What of the fixed stars ? What forms the sub¬ ject of astronomy f

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY.

2. THE HEAVENS

AS SEEN THROUGH THE TELESCOPE.

The number of stars visible to the naked eye is about three thou¬ sand, which appear scattered over the concave surface of the heavens.

The ancients imagined the figures of various animals and personages of their mythology to be traced on this concave surface. These figures they called Constellations, and consi¬ dered a group of stars to belong to each.

The use of the* telescope has greatly in¬ creased the number of visible stars, and also proved that some which appear single, in reali¬ ty consist of two, three, and even four stars, extremely close together.

Venus, Fig. 1. Nebulai, or luminous spots, are seen in dif¬

ferent parts of the heavens, of which the Ga¬ laxy, or milky way, is the most remarkable.

The telescope shows that this appearance is produced by an immense number of stars.

Continued observation has proved that the fixed stars are not altogether exempt from change. Several stars have disappeared, and some not known to the ancients are now visible.

Mercury and Venus, [Fig. 1,] as they re¬ volve round the sun, exhibit changes like the moon, while the faces of all the other planets are nearly circular.

Jupiter, Fig. 2. Mars sometimes has a gibbous appearance,

like the moon, when nearly full, and is known by his fiery red colour.

Certain spots appear on the sun, and the four planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Sa¬ turn; and Jupiter [Fig. 2] is marked by several parallel belts, or stripes.

Jupiter is attended by four small stars, which are seen sometimes on the same side, and sometimes on opposite sides of the planet.

The planet Saturn [Fig. 3] is also at¬ tended by seven, and Uranus by six little Saturn, Fig. 3. stars, called satellites, or secondary planets.

Saturn is also surrounded by a circular ring.

IIow many stars are visible to the naked eye ? What of the constellations ? What of the use of the telescope ? What are nebulae p Are the fixed stars en¬ tirely exempt from change P What changes of Mercury and Venus P Of Mars p What appear on the sun and planets p What attends Jupiter p Saturn p

THE EARTH.

3. THE EARTH.

The earth [Fig. 4] is a round body isolated in space, as is proved by the following facts.

To an observer who travels from the north towards the south, stars which at their greatest elevation appeared at the place where he set out south of the point directly over head, now appear to the north of that point.

This proves that his path on the surface of the earth has not been a straight line, but a curve, of which the convexity is turned towards the sky.

The convexity of the earth is apparent to a spectator observing a ship leaving the shore.

At first the lower parts of the ship disappear, then the more elevated, and at last the highest parts of the masts sink into the horizon, because the sight is interrupted by the curved surface of the ocean, as represented in Fig. 5.

In like manner, when ' two ships at sea meet Convexity of the Earth, Fig. 5.

each other, the navigators in each see at first the up¬ per part of the rigging of the opposite vessel, and as the distance be¬ comes less the body of each vessel comes gradually into view.

That the horizon of the sea, which to the eye terminates its surface, is only an apparent limit, is evident from the fact that as we advance towards it we find it recede.

This uniformly happens to the navigator, and by continuing to sail in the same direction he will at last arrive at the same port from which he set out, having sailed round the globe.

In shape the earth differs but little from a globe, or sphere of 7916 miles in diameter, and consequently is about 24,870 miles in circum¬ ference.

What is the earth ? What appears to an observer who travels from the north to the south ? What does this prove ? What other proof? What appears when two ships meet each other at sea ? Is the horizon at sea a real or only an appa¬ rent limit? What happens to the navigator who continues to sail in the same

The Earth, Fig. 4.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY.

Every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, and each degree into 60 equal parts, called minutes. A de¬ gree of a circle, therefore, on any part of the earth’s surface, whose centre is the same with that of the earth, will be a little more than 69 miles and a minute, about 1^ mile.

4. DEFINITIONS.

The motions of the heavenly bodies being in appearance all per¬ formed on a sphere, of which the eye of the spectator is the centre, it has been found expedient to suppose certain circles to be traced on this sphere, to which also the heavenly bodies in space are referred.

A great circle of the sphere is that whose plane passes through its centre, and all others are small circles.

A circle of the celestial sphere, whose plane passes through the centre of the earth, and is perpendicular to the axis, is called the Equa¬ tor of the earth, or Equinoctial.

A circle whose plane passes through the poles, is called the Meri¬ dian, and the section of the earth’s surface made by this plane, is called the meridian of all the places through which it passes.

We know by observation that any heavy body let fall from a point above the earth will descend in a straight line. This line is called the direction of gravity.

If a line in the direction of gravity, at any point on the earth’s sur¬ face, be produced upwards and downwards, this line, called a vertical, will marie on the celestial sphere two points, the one above called the Zenith, and the other below called the Nadir.

A plane conceived to pass through any place on the earth’s surface, at right angles to the lino of gravity, joining the zenith and nadir, will, when extended to the heavens, meet the sphere in a circle, which is the Horizon of that place.

The plane of the horizon of any place touches the earth’s surface, and divides the whole expanse of the heavens into two Hemispheres, one of which, that above the horizon, is visible, and the other, that be¬ low the horizon, is invisible.

Circles, whose planes pass through the zenith and nadir of any place, are called vertical circles. The meridian is of course a vertical circle, and. the vertical circle, whose plane is perpendicular to the meridian, is called the prime vertical.

The meridian cuts the horizon in the north and south points, and the prime vertical cuts it in the east and west. These four points, which divide the horizon into four equal parts, are called Cardinal points.

Between the cardinal points of the horizon there are four others,

direction ? What is the shape and size of the earth ? How is every circle sup¬ posed to be divided ?

Why do we suppose certain circles to be traced on the sphere ? What is a great circle ? What is the equator of the earth ? What is the meridian ? What of the direction of gravity ? If a line in the direction of gravity is produced upwards and downwards, what points are marked ? What is the horizon of a place ? What results from the plane of the horizon touching the earth’s sur- 2 lace ? What are vertical circles ? In what points does the meridian cut the

ROTATION OF THE SUN, MOON, AND PLANETS. II

north-east, south-east, south-west, north-west, and each of these is again subdivided, making thirty-two points in all.

The mariner’s compass [Fig. 7] consists of a card, having the points of the horizon marked on the border which surrounds it, and a magnetized needle balanced on a pivot, which always points to the north.

The mysterious property which the mag¬ net possesses of always pointing to the north, enables the mariner to proceed with confi¬ dence and certainty across the wide ocean from one country to another.

The sun rises in the east and sets in the _ ...

west part of the heavens. When, therefore, Mariners’ Compass, Fig. 7 . the face is turned towards the north, the east

is on the right hand, the west on the left hand, and the south behind.

If the meridian circle pass through the zenith of any place, the space intercepted between the zenith and equator is the Latitude of that place; therefore the latitude of a place is its distance from the equator.

Assuming any meridian as the first meridian, the distance on the equator between it and any other place is the meridian, or Longitude, of that place; therefore longitude is the distance of any place east or west of another place.

The first meridian is usually fixed at some remarkable place or city, as London, Paris, Washington City.

5. ROTATION OF THE SUN, MOON, AND PLANETS.

From the existence of spots passing across the surface or disc of the sun, we are led to conclude that the sun rotates on its axis from west to east, in about twenty-five daj^s and a half.

That the Moon, and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, have each a motion of rotation from west to east, is in¬ ferred in like manner from the spots that are seen on their surface.

The moon presents always nearly the same side to the earth, and must, therefore, rotate on her axis in the same time in which she re¬ volves round the earth, which is 27# days nearly.

Mercury rotates on its axis once in 24 hours, Venus in 234 hours, Mars in 244 hours, Jupiter in 10 hours, and Saturn in 104 hours. The time of rotation of the other planets has not been ascertained.

With regard to the figure of the sun, and those planets known to revolve on an axis, we may conclude that they are spherical, or nearly so, since no other form could in every position present a circular ap¬ pearance.

horizon ? The prime vertical ? What other parts of the horizon ? Of what does the mariner’s compass consist ? What of the magnet ? How can you dis¬ tinguish the points of the compass from the sun?

What do we infer from the spots passing across the surface of the sun ? Of what other planets do we observe the same proof of rotation on their axis? Why does the moon always present the same side to the earth ? In what time does each of the other planets rotate on its axis? Why do we conclude that the sun and other planets that rotate are spherical ?

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY.

6. ROTATION OF THE EARTH.

The daily motion of the heavenly bodies suggests the existence of some cause under which they appear to perform a revolution from east to west in the space of a day and a night.

We may suppose the heavens to ne carried round the earth while the earth remains at rest, or the heavens to be at rest, and the earth to revolve on an axis from west to east.

But it is more reasonable to suppose the earth to have a rotation on its axis than that the sun, a body so large and distant, moves with such rapidity as to carry him round the earth in so short a time.

The velocity also required to carry the sun round the earth in 24 hours, is really insensible when compared with the rapidity with which the fixed stars must move to accomplish a like revolution.

But every difficulty vanishes when we suppose the earth to rotate on its axis from west to east every 24 hours, which is therefore the only rational conclusion.

The points on which the axis of rotation meets the surface are called th e Poles of the earth, and this axis, if produced, would pass through th e poles of the heavens.

7. THE SEASONS.

While the sun participates in the diurnal motion of the heavens, he also appears to move eastward among the fixed stars.

It has been found that the sun appears to move in a path, or orbit,

What does the apparent daily motion of the heavenly bodies suggest ? What may we suppose the cause to be? Which is the most reasonable f What ob¬ jection with respect to the fixed stars ? What causes every difficultv to vanish ? What are the poles of the earth ? ’

What motion besides the diurnal motion does the sun appear to have ? At

THE SEASONS.

which cuts the equator in two opposite points, and makes with it an f angle of 23° 28' nearly.

The name of Ecliptic is given to the circle which the plane of this 1 orbit marks out on the sphere of the heavens. It passes through the | twelve constellations which are called the twelve signs of the zodiac, I each containing of course 30 degrees.

The names of these constellations, with the characters by which [ they are usually denoted, are Aries y>, Taurus 8, Gemini n. Career i 55- Leo Virgo Libra = 2 =, Scorpio up, Sagittarius Capricorn • Amiarius £#, and Pisces as represented in Fig. 8.

The vicissitude of the seasons arises from the combination of the t apparent motion of the sun in the ecliptic with his apparent diurnal i motion. When the sun is in either of tne points in which the ecliptic I intersects the equator, he describes the equator that day in virtue of his diurnal motion, and the day is then equal to the night all over the I globe.

The points of intersection of the equator and ecliptic are called the equinoctial points. The first point of the sign Aries is supposed to coincide with the vernal equinox, and from that point the signs of the ecliptic are reckoned. The first point of the sign Libra will, there- I fore, coincide with the autumnal equinox.

The point in the ecliptic at which the sun attains his greatest alti- I tilde is called the summer Solstice, and the point at which his meri- 1 dian altitude is least is called the winter Solstice.

The Spring is the season between the vernal, or spring equinox, which falls about the 21st of March, and the summer solstice, which falls about the 21st of June, and the interval between the solstice and the autumnal equinox, which falls about the 23d of September, is Summer.

The time between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice, which occurs about the 22d of December, is the Autumn, and the Win¬ ter is the time that elapses between the winter solstice and the spring equinox.

The two circles parallel to the equator, which the sun describes on the longest and shortest days, are called, one the summer, or northern Tropic, and the other the winter, or southern Tropic. They are also called the tropic of Capricorn and the tropic of Cancer, in reference to the points in which they touch the ecliptic.

About each of the poles suppose a circle to be described distant from it a number of degrees equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, or 23° 28'; these two circles are called the Polar circles.

In the region of the earth situated around either of its poles, at every point whose zenith lies within the polar circle, the time of the sun’s presence above the horizon, at certain seasons, exceeds 24 hours; it

what angle does its path appear to cut the equator ? What is the ecliptic, and through what does it pass ? Which are the names of the constellations ? From what does the vicissitude of the seasons arise ? What are the equinoctial points ? What point coincides with the vernal equinox ? The autumnal equi¬ nox ? What is the summer solstice ? Winter solstice ? What is the Spring ? Summer? Autumn? Winter? What are the tropics ? The polar circles ?

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY.

increases as we approach the pole, where it never sets for one-half the year, causing six months of day and six months of night.