A treatise on civil polity and political economy: with an appendix, containing a brief account of the powers, duties, and slaries, of national, state, county, and town officers ...

Front matter

. ^4^,*- t t a

TREATISE

ON

Preface

them have been designed for the reading of the higher classes in colleges, or for professional men, and are not well adapted to the use of schools. Those writings to which the author is principally indebted for the materials of that portion of the following work which treats of the Constitution, are the Commentaries of Chancellor Kent and Chief-Justice Story, Gordon's Digest of the Laws of the United States, Bayard's and Duer's Expositions of the Constitution, and Mansfield's Political Grammar.

The author claims little originality^ for this portion of his work, other than for the manner in which the subject is illustrated. His design has been to compile a work that will be useful, and in following out his plan, he has not hesitated to avail himself of the assistance afforded by the writincrs of others.

The study of Political Econom^y is beginning to receive that attention from the friends of popular education which its importance demands. It is now introduced into most of our colleges and schools of a higher order, but as yet most of the text-books used are too voluminous to be generally adopted in high schools and academies. To supply the want of such a work, the " Elements OF Political Economy" have been written, in

PREPACE. 7

which the principles of that science are familiarly explained. In the compilation of this portion of his work, the author has principally consulted the writings of Adam Smith, Mr. Say, and the late excellent work of President Wayland. The first twenty-three pages, ending with "Protective Duties," are little more than an abridgment of the first one hundred and forty pages of Wayland. It has been the aim of the writer to avoid all repetition, and yet to illustrate his subject in as concise and simple a manner as possible. The remaining portion of the work, both in manner and matter, has more claim to originality; but it is believed that the principles attempted to be established and illustrated, are the same with those advanced by the principal political economists of the present day. Most of those principles, which are now considered erroneous, but which present some claim to our attention on account of their adoption by the earlier writers on Political Economy, have been adverted to chiefly in the notes which accompany this work. In so limited a work as the present, which professes simply to methodize and illustrate obvious and first principles, it is thought the writer's time would be misspent in combating erroneous theories, which will of themselves sink into oblivion as the first

8 PREFACE.

principles of Political Economy become more generally and more perfectly understood. In relation to the many erroneous theories advanced by uninformed political economists, I cannot forbear to quote the words of Mr. Say. " With respect to the wild or antiquated theories so often produced or reproduced by authors who possess neither sufficiently extensive nor well-digested information to entitle them to form a sound judgment, the most effectual method of refuting them is to display the true doctrines of the science with still greater clearness, and to leave to time the care of disseminating them. We otherwise should be involved in interminable controversies, affording no instruction to the enlightened part of society, and inducing the uninformed to believe that nothing is susceptible of proof, inasmuch as everjr thing is made the subject of argument and disputation."

In the hope that this work may be found useful to the public — that it may serve to increase the intelligence and excite the patriotism of his fellow-citizens, and prove an efficient auxiliary in the cause of common education, the author respectfully submits it to the judgment of the public.

Contents

AND

PLAN OF THE WORK

Book First. Civil Polity

CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL KNOWLEDGE AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.

PART FIRST. Elements of Political Knowledge

Natural Liberty 25

Civil Liberty 26

CivilSociety 27

Law 28

Sovereignty 30

Government 32

Despotism 32

Aristocracy 33

Democracy » 35

Limited Monarchy 87

United States Government 39

Constitution 42

Statute Law 46

Common Law 47

Corporations 47

Charter 48

Parties 48

Factions 49

PART SECOND. Constitutional Law

Origin of the Constitution of the United States 51

Preamble 54

Article I. — Of the Legislatiire.

Sec. I. — Legislative Power 55

Congress 55

Of the Organization of the Government ... 55

Of the constituent parts of the Legislature . . 55

II. — Electors of Representatives 56

Gluaiifications of Representatives 57

Ratio of Representation 57

Vacancies in the Representation from a State 60

Mode of electing Representatives 59

Officers of the House of Representatives ... 60

Power and Mode of Impeachment 60

III. — Composition of the Senate 61

Gtualifications for Senators 63

President and other Officers of the Senate 64

Power to try Impeachments 64

Judgment upon Impeachments 65

IV. — Elections for Senators and Representatives 65

Assembling of Congress 66

V. — The keeping of a Journal by each House . . 66

Expunging of the Journal 67

Adjournments of either House 67

VI. — Members privileged from Arrest 68

Treason, Felony, and Breach of the Peace 68

VII. — Bills for raising Revenue 69

Mode ojf passing Laws 70

Executive Veto 71

Of the Powers of Congress.

VIII. — To impose Taxes, Duties, Imposts, and Excises * 73

To borrow Money 75

To regulate Commerce 76

To establish the Mode of Naturalization. . 77

Protective Duties 76

Naturalization 77

Bankruptcy 78

To coin Money, &c 79

To establish Post-offices and Post-roads . . 80

Internal Improvements 80

Patent and Copy rights ; . 81

To constitute Judicial Tribunals 82

To punish Piracy 82

Piracies — High Seas 83

To declare War, support Armies, Ac. ... 83

Letters of Marque and Reprisal .... 83

Navy — Standing Armies 84

Powers of Congress over Military Affairs 85 Powers of the President as Commander-in-chief 86

Legislation over ceded Places 86

The question of a National Bank 88

Of Restrictions upon the Poiolrs of Congress.

IX. — Importation of Slaves ^

Writ of Habeas Corpus—Bills of Attainder 90

Ex post facto Laws 91

Capitation Taxes 92

Duties on Exports 92

Commercial Regulations 93

The Public Moneys 93

Titles of Nobility 94

Of Restrictions upon the Powers of the States,

X.— Bills of Credit 94

Obligation of Contracts 95

Tonnage Duties dQ

Article IL — Of the Exectitive.

Sec. I. — Executive 97

Electors of President and Vice-President. 98

Manner of Election ......*.. 99

Clualifications for President 101

II. — His Powers and Duties 104

Public Ministers — Ambassadors — Consuls 107

III.— President's Messages 108

Article III. — Of the Judiciary.

Sec. I. — Organization of the Courts of the United

States 110

II. — Extent of Judicial Power Ill

A Case — Equity Ill

Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdiction ... 112

Original and Appellate Jurisdiction 114

Trials by Jury 114

III. — Treason — Conviction and Punishment of 116

Article IY. — Miscellaneous,

Sec I. — Credit given to domestic Judgments — to

foreign Judgments 117

II. — Privileges of Citizens in different States. 118 Fugitive Slaves — Delivery of Criminals 118

III. — Admission of new^ States 119

Territorial Regulations 120

IV.—- Protection of the States 120

Article V. — Of ATnendments.

Amendments, how made 121

Limitations to the powei of making Amendments. 121 2

Article YI.

Debts contracted before the adoption of the Constitution 122

Laws of the Land 123

Oath required of Public Officers— Religious Test. . 124

Article VIL

Of the Ratification of the Constitution 125

Amendments 127

Section II. — Of Industry

I. The Object of Industry 150

Changes effected b)^ Industr}^ 150

The different Forms of Industry 151

The Products of the different Forms of Industry. . . 153

II. Of the different Modes by ^'hich the Productiveness of Human Industry may be increased ; and, first, by the Use of Natural Agents ..... .'-i^'iifl s?^156

Natural Agents-r-animate and inanimate 157

Their Uses and Importance 157

III. Of the Manner in which Productiveness may . . be increased by Division of L?bor . . 158

Division of Labor among the different Departments of Industry 158

IV. Limitations to the Division of Labor 162

From the Nature of the Process 16*2

Amount of Capital 163

Extent of the Demand 164

Of the natural National Divisions of Labor 165

V. Effects of the increased Productiveness of Hu- 1 man Industry 166

Labor-saving Machinery 166

Effect upon both Consumers and Producers 167

Section III. — Of the PrinciiJles which govern the Application of Labor to Capital. Labor and Capital united 171

I. Freedom of Labor and Capital necessary to Production 171

Effects of an Insecurity of Property upon Industry. 172 Monopolies 173

II. The greater the ratio of Capital to Labor, the greater will be the Wages of Labor, and the greater will be the stimulus to Industry 175

Advantages of accumulations of Capital 176

III. The Productiveness'of Industry and Capital will be increased in proportion to the Intellectual Improvement of a People 178

IV. Of Protective Duties 179

V. Of Bounties 192

PART SECOND. Of the Distribution of Wealth

The Principles which regulate the Division of Value among the Producers 195

The Wages of different kinds of Labor 197

Of simple Labor 198

Of educate^l Labor 200

Of the Price paid for the U.-:e of Capital 203

Causes which occasion Fluctuations in the. Rate of

Interest 206

Rent 207

Of legal Interest .209

PART THIRD. Of the Exchange of V/ealth

The different kinds of Exchange 215

Section I. — Of Barter in General, or Exchange in Kind

I. The Necessity of Exchanges -...-. ^%Q

Of the Principles which give rise to Exchange 217

II. Barter in" General, or Exchange in Kind . . .... 221

Section II. — Of Exchange by means of a Metallic Cur- •rency

I. Of the (Qualities necessary to that which constitutes the Circulating Medium 2-28

•U. Of the Amount of Money necessary to effect thjg . .

Exchanges of a Community 235

Exchanges between Nations 237

Effect of a Productive Season upon Exchanges 239

— — — of an Unproductive Season 241

Of the abundance and scarcity of Money 242

III. Of Banks of Deposite and Exchange 245

The Evils which they remedy 245

Bills of Exchange 253

Section III. — Of Exchange hy means of a Paper Cur

rency.

I. Banks of Discount and Loan ; and of Circulation,

or Issue Banks, in this Country 256

Their Nature and Mode of Operation 259

II. Of the Sources of the Profits of Banks 264

III. Of the Utility of Banks 266

As Institutions of Deposit and Exchange 267

As Institutions of Discount aild Loan 267

IV. Of the Disadvantages of Banks 273

Their liability to Forgery 273

to Fraud and Fluctuation 273

Of the New-York Safety Fund System 279

PART FOURTH. Of the Consumption of Wealth

I. Of the Nature and Different Kinds of Consumption 285

Productive and Unproductive Consumption 287

Consumption for the Increase of Value 287

— : for the Gratification of Desire 288

IL Of Public Expenditure 289

Effects of Public Profusion 290

AN APPENDIX,

CONTAINING

A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE POWERS, DUTIES, AND SALARIES, OF NATIONAL, STATE,

Chapter I. Of National Officers

Section l.— Of the Executive Department.

I. Of the Department of State 296

11. Of the Treasury Department 296

III. Of the War Department 297

IV. Of the Navy Department 298

V. Of the Post-office Department 299

VI. Of the Mint Department 301

Section II. — Of the Legislative Department.

I. The Officers of Congress 302

II. Their Committees 303

III. Their Rules 304

Section III. — Of the Judicial Department.

The Supreme Court— The Circuit Courts— The District Courts 30G

Of the Officers of the Courts.

Attorneys — Clerks — Marshals— Reporters .... 306, 307

Chapter II

OF THE STATE, COUNTY, AND TOWN OF- FICERS OF THE STATE OF NEW-YORK.

Section L — Of State Officers.

I. Of Legislative Officers •. . 308

Senators — Members of Assembly.

II. Of Executive Officers 309

Of the Governor — Lieutenant-Governor — Secretary of State — Comptroller — Treasurer^Attorney-General — Surveyor-General — State Printer — Governor's Private Secretary and Door-keeper of the Executive Chamber — Admiaistrative Officers.

III. Of the Judiciary 319

Of the Court for the Trial of Impeachments and the Correction of Errors— Court of Chaneery — The Supreme Court — The Circuit Courts — Courts of Oyer and Terminer — Courts of Common Pleas — Courts of General Sessions — Courts of Special Sessions — Courts of Justices of the Peace.

Section II. — Of County Officers 323

Of the Sheriff— Coroners — District Attorney — Judges of the County Courts — County Clerk — Surrogate — Superintendents of the Poor — County Treasurer — Board of Supervisors — Commissioners of Loans — County Sealer — Auctioneers — Inspectors of Commodities.

Section III. — Of Town Officers 333

Of the Supervisor— Town Clerk — Assessors — Justices of the Peace — Collector — Overseers of the Poor — Commissioners of Highways — Commissioners of Common Schools — Inspectors of Common Schools— Constables — Town Sealer — Overseers of Highways — Pound-masters — Fence-viewers — Conmiissioners of Excise — Board of Auditors of Town Accounts — Commissioners of Deeds.

Book I. Civil Polity

CONTAINING

ELEMENTS

OP

AND

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.

Part First Elements

OF

Natural Liberty — is freedom from all human restraint. It is the acting as one's will and passions prompt him, restrained only by those laws of our nature which the Deity has imposed upon us. This kind of liberty can exist only in a state of solitude, and never under any form of government: the very idea of a government precludes it.

Where men have the liberty of doing whatever their passions urge them to attempt, or their strength enables them to effect, their very liberty becomes savage ferocity : it is the liberty of a tiger, and not that of a man. Unbridled liberty is the worst of tyranny ; and where there is no law, there can be no freedom.

Wlmt is Natural Liberty ?

Where, and where only, can it exist ?

What would natural hberty become if unrestrained?

If men were never actuated by wrong motives, no codes of jurisprudence would be necessary to keep them in the path of duty ; but the design and use of a wise government is to restrain the licentiousness of one portion of community, and to protect the other from wrong and injustice.

Hence arises the necessity of laws which abridge the natural liberty of man where its exercise would infringe upon the rights of others.

One man has no right to that unrestrained freedom which seeks his own interest exclusively, and disregards the welfare of his fellow men.

Were men wise enough to seek their i^n/c interest, it would never be promoted by the violation of right and duty; for the laws of the Creator are such, that permanent individual good never clashes with the general happiness of all.

From the restrictions placed by a wise government upon the natural liberty of man, there arises a more secure and desirable state of freedom, called civil liberty.

Civil Liberty — is beiyig restrained by rid law but what conduces in a greater degree to the public welfare. After a government has

Whence arises the necessity of government and laws r What is that state of freedom called, which arises from the restrictions placed upon natural liberty ? What is Civil Liberty.'

been established, those rights which are retained by the people are the residuum of natural liberty, which is not required by the laws of society to be sacrificed to public convenience ; or they may be said to be those civil privileges which society engages to provide in place of the natural liberties given up by individuals.

Laws which augment the civil liberty of a people, must often necessarily restrain the personal liberty of individuals.

Although a person in the freest Republic in the world may be imprisoned for a ciime^ his civil liberty is not invaded if his confinement is the result of a beneficial public law; for, according to the definition of civil liberty, the law by which his crime is punished conduces in a greater degree to the public welfare.

Civil Society — is the umon of a multitude of people who agree to live in subjection to certain law-s which either the people themselves form, or which are left to the regulation of their rulers. Nothing can be advanced with certainty respecting the origin of civil societies.

What are the rights retained by the people ? How may the civil liberty of a people be increased, while the personal liberty of individuals is restrained ? What is Civil Society ?

Their origin has been attributed —r

First — To paternal authority — that authority which a father exercises over his family — a patriarch oyer his direct descendants, The little band, thus united by the tie$ of kindred and by a similarity of views and interests, would naturally be kept together after the death of the patriarcl^ and his authority be transferred %o some oxud of his descendants.

Second — -Civil society is supposed by some to have originated in that fear and diffidence which mankind had of one another, which induced thena to unite together in order to shelter themselves from the evils they apprehended.

Third — That ambition in the more powerful was the cause of reducing the weak to subject tion, thus forming the germs of sovereignty and^ empire.

But the varieties of character among the rud-est people will not permit us to refer the origin of all governments to a general and uniform principle. it is more natural to suppose that different cir^ cumstances gave rise to different states.

Law — is a mode of existence, or a state of being.

To what has the origin of civil societies been attributed ? First— Second— Third— Wliat is the most natural suppositiQn relating to their origin ?

Wbal is Iaw ?

POLITICAt KNOWLEDGE. 29

It ts not a rule of action only, for inertia is a law of matter. The meaning of the term law, however, embraces the rules of all action, and constitutes alike the rules by which the heavenly bodies move, by which nations are governed and plants grow.

Law, in a political sense, however, signifies a rule of human action. In a particular state, it is a rule prescribed by the supreme power in the State, commanding what is right, and forbidding what is wrong.

Laio may be divided into four kinds — the Law of Nature, Revealed Law, the Law of Nations, and Municipal Law.

The Law of Nature — is the will of the Deity, as gathered from his works.

Revealed Law — is the will of the Deity, as expressed by himself in divine revelation.

The former is what, by the assistance of reason, we imagine to be the will of the Deity. The latter is what the Deity has expressly declared to be his will.

What is law in its most general signification ? What is the signification of the term when used i« a political gcnse ?

What is it in a particular state .' How may law be divided ?

What is the Law of Nature ?

Revealed Law .?

3*

.- The haws of Nations — are those rulea- which define the rights and prescribe the duties of nations, in their mutual intercourse with each other.

Municipal Law — is a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme pow^r in a State.— r- Municipal laws are civil or internal, as distinguished from national or external laws. The Iaws relative to the descent of property are mur nicipal laws] but laws relative to commerce, tp war, the army and navy, are external and njational.

Sovereignty — is the highest power.

Sovereignty destroys the natural liberty of man. But a wise sovereignty, whether its power bp vested in one man, in a select body of men, or in the whole people, does not subvert civil liberty, but, on the contrary, contributes to strengthen and cement it.

For a State or Nation to be sovereign, it must govern itself without any dependence upon another power. It must have no superiors. But when a community, city, or State makes part of aaother community or State, and is represented

The laws of Nations ?

Municipal Law ?

What is Sovereignty ? k With what is sovereignty incompatible, natural or civil liberty ?»

^' What is necessary in order for a State to be ebvei^eign ?- with foreign 'powers by that community or State of which it i§ a part, then it is not sovereign.

With respect to the United States, the individ,- ual States are not sovereign powers. The General Government of the United States is sovereign in a national capacity, and that of the States in a municipal capacity. The United States government is the only power which can declare war, make peace, enter into treaties, regulate commerce, coin money, &c. And these are national objects.

The States have reserved to themselves the power to make municipal laws — those which directly concern the States alone— .such a3 those which relate to State taxation, descent of property, chartered com,panies, police regulations, &c. — The States are, therefore, sovereign in their municipal capacity only.

Euti the gayerument of the United States is superior to and sovereign over the governments of the States in those cases, in which they are constitutionally brought into collision. Finally, the people of the United States are one nation^ and do not consist of many separate sovereignties united by a league.

In the United States are the individual States sovereign powers ?

In what capacity is the general government sovereign ?

In what may the States be considered sovereign ?

Which is superior, the General or the State goyevnnj.outs '

Government — is the whole body of constituted authority. From the very ori^n of society, one portion of the people have exercised authority over the rest. The authority thus exercised is called the goveTiimeiit, and it derives its just powers from the consent of the governed.

There are four principal forms of government, viz: Despotism, Limited Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy, or Republic.

A Despotism — is that form of government in which a single individual, without any law, governs according to his owm will and caprice. — An example of this kind of government may be found in Turkey, where the Sultan exercises all the powers of sovereignty, with respect to the general administration of public affairs ; but even there he is limited by certain customs and rules as it respects private justice.

The advantages of a despotism are unity of counsel, activity, decision, secrecy, military strength, the exclusion of popular and aristocrati-

WTiat is Government ^

How many, and what are the principal forms of government ?

What is a Despotism .'

Where may an example of this kind of government be found ?

By what is the sovereignty of the Sultan limited?

What are the advantages of a despotism ?

Qal contentions, and the preventing, by a known prder of succession, of all competition for the su-. preme power.

The evils to which it is liable are tyranny, ex-, pense, unnecessary w^ars waged to gratify the passions of an individual, uncertainty of ob-. taining a good prince, ignorance in the rulers of the interests of the people, want of constancy and uniformity in the rules of govern-, ment, and, finallyi insecurity of person and prop% erty.

An Aristocracy — is that form of government in which the legislature and sovereign power are in a select assembly, the members of which either fill up by election the vacancies in their own body, ©r succeed to. their pkces in it by inheritance, pro-, perty, or in reject of some personal right ox qualification.

The word aristocracy is of Greek derrvation* and is compounded of the adjective aristos, signifying best or wisest, and kratos, signifying powei? or strength. The whole word signifies that form of government in which a few^ of the wusest and best govern.

What are the evils to which it is liable .'

Whit is an Aristocracy .'

What is the derivation and signification of the word aristocracy }

The theory of this government is certainly a very beautiful one ; and if the best and the wisest were the rulers, the government would be as perfect as human ingenuity could devise. But the practical effects of this form of government are often widely different from the advantages promised by the theory.

Aristocracies are of two kinds : First, where the power of the nobility belongs to them in their collective capacity only ; that is, where, although the government resides in an assembly of the order, yet the members of that assembly, separately and individually, possess no authority or privilege beyond the rest of the community.

Secondly, where the nobles are severally invested with great personal power and immunities, and where the power of the Senate is little more than the aggregated power of the individuals who compose it.

Of these two forms of government, the first is far more tolerable than the last. For in the first form of aristocracy, although a few members of the Senate should be profligate enough to abuse their

What is said of the theory, as contrasted with the practical effects of this form of government ^ Of how many kinds are aristocracies ? What is the form first mentioned ?

The second ?

Which is the more tolerable, and why f authority, it would still be difficult to obtain the consent of a majority to any specific act of oppression.

Or if the Senate had the will to do wrong, the power would be more confined; for one tyrant, whether the tyranny reside in a single person or in a Senate, cannot exercise oppression at so many places at the same time as may be exercised by a numerous nobility over their respective vassals and dependents.

The peculiar advantage claimed for an aristocracy, is the wisdom which may be expected from experience and education. A permanent council naturally possesses experience, and the members who succeed to their places in it by inheritance, will probably be educated with a view to the stations w^hich they are destined by their birth to occupy.

The evils to which an aristocracy is liable, are dissensions among the ruling orders of the State, oppression of the lower orders by the privileges of the higher, and laws partial to the separate interests of the law^-makers.

A Democracy — is that form of government in which the legislature and sovereign power are

What peculiar advantage is claimed for an aristocracy ^ To whai evils is it liable I What is a Democracy ?

TO ELEMENTS Oi

in the hands of the people at large. The terrh democracy is derived from two Greek words-, demos, signifying people, and kratos, signifying power, meaning that form of government in which *the people rule.

Democracies are of two kinds: First, where the people govern themselves by primary assemblies, as in ancient Athens — a mode which could be adopted only v/here the people were chiefly citizens of a small country, or inhabitants of one city. Secondly, where the people govern themselves by delegates, or through the principles 6f representation, as in the United States. The latter form of a democracy is more frequently called a Republic.

The advantages of a Democracy or Republic, 'dre civil liberty, equal laws, regulations adapted to the wants and circumstances of the people, public spirit, frugality, averseness to war, and the opportunities which democratic assemblies afford to 'men of every description of producing their abili- Hes to public observation. Here merit seldoEii

What is the derivation and signification of the word democracy ?

*0f how many kinds are democracies ?

What is the kind first mentioned ^

The second?

What is the last mentioned form of a democracy often called?

What are the advantages of a democracy ?

goes unrewarded, and a field for the display of talent is always open.

The evils to which a democracy is liable, are dissensions, tumults, and faction ; the attempts of powerful citizens to possess themselves of supreme power, and the delay and disclosure of public counsels and designs.

Knowledge and virtue among the people are the only conservative principles of a democratic form of government.

A Liinited Monarchy — is formed by a combination of two or more of these simple forms of government — despotism, aristocracy, and democr^2y; and, in whatever proportion either of these forms enters into the constitution of a government, in the same proportion may both the advantages and the evils which are attributed to that form be expected.

Some limited monarchies are hereditary ; others are elective.

An hereditary monarchy is universally to be preferred to an elective monarchy. A crown is too splendid a prize to be conferred upon

What are the evils to which it is hable ?

What are the only conservative principles of this form of government ^

How is a Limited Monarchy formed ?

Why is an hereditary monarchy to be preferred to an elective monarchy ?

merit, and nothing is gained by a popular choice worth the dissensions and tumults with which it is invariaby attended.

Besides, a king who passes to a throne through scenes of tumult, and often of bloodshed, will be apt to regard one part of his subjects as the associates of his fortune, and the other as conquered foes.

Also, the benefits to be derived from a uniformity of counsels and designs, may be expected with greater probability where the supreme power descends in the same race, and where each prince succeeds in some sort to the aim, pursuits, and disposition of his ancestor, than if the crown, at every change, devolve upon a stranger, whose first care will commonly be to pull down what his predecessor had built up.

The English government is an hereditary limited monarchy, and is probably the best kind of limited monarchy known. It is formed by a combination of the three different forms of simple government, viz. — despotism or monarchy, which resides in the King — aristocracy, in the House of Lords — and democracy, in the House of Commons.

What is the best form of limited monarcliy known.' Of what is the English government Gomposed ?