Practical work in geography, for the use of teachers and advanced pupils ...

Front matter

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Preface

In preparing this little work, I have tried to make it a guide for young teachers. The field of geographical study is so vast that it requires considerable thought to determine wisely what should be taught and what omitted. This book contains what seems to me a reasonable amount of the proper kind of work for each of the three departments — Preparatory (or Primary), Elementary and Advanced; and gives some suggestions in regard to the method of doing it.

I have been greatly aided in the preparation of this Manual by Lippincott’s Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World (a work which every teacher of Geography shouid have on his desk), the various Encyclopedias and other works mentioned elsewhere in the book.

Henry McCormick.

Normal , Illinois , May u, 1885 .

Contents

Direction, Distance and Form 7

Lessons Around Home 12

Object Lessons 22

Chapter I. Direction, Distance, And Form

Tims nf He ginning. — This work may begin at any time after the child enters school, and should begin as early as the middle of the second year. It should be regarded as a preparation for the study of geography rather than geography itself. But it is none the less valuable on that account. If properly done it will enable the pupil, at the suitable time, to enter upon the study of geography with an appreciation of the subject, which is lacking in those who begin the study without preparation.

nirBCtian, — If the children do not already know the cardinal points, let those be taught first. Noon is a good time to introduce the subject. If at this time the children stand with their backs to the sun, their shadows will fall to the North. The point opposite the north is South. On their right is East, and on their left West.

To test their knowledge of these points they may be asked to face the east, west, and the south. When facing the east, what direction on their right? What on the left? In what direction will their shadows fall at sunset? At sunrise? Get them to point to objects in the schoolroom which are north of them, south, east, west.

PREPARATORY WORK

When satisfied that the directions of these four points are fixed, you may tell them that the point half-way between the south and east, is Southeast; between the north and east, is Northeast; between the north and west, is Northwest, and that the point half-way between the south and west, is Southwest.

The children, having learned the eight points now named, should be asked to name objects in the direction of each, beginning with those in the schoolroom, and passing to things in the school yard, and others at a distance from the school building; to name the direction in which they travel in coming from their homes to school, and in going from the school building to the Post-office, or to any other prominent point that may be known to all, or most of them; the object being to fasten firmly these first, and perhaps, most important lessons.

Distance. — The idea of distance should next be introduced. In attempting this, see that the children are provided with rulers a foot long, marked into twelve equal spaces. Ask them to draw on the blackboard, by the aid of these rulers, lines a foot in length, six inches, three inches, one inch. They will soon see the relation of these lines to one another.

A line three times the length of the ruler is a yard . Get

them to draw lines a yard long, at first with the aid of the rulers, afterwards without, and see how nearly these lines will agree in length. They should also be asked to name objects in the school room, a yard long, a foot, half a foot, etc., and then measure the objects so as to test the accuracy of their guesses.

If the blackboard is long enough, place on it a line a rod in length. This the children may measure and see how it compares with the one a yard long. Then let them measure off like distances in other parts of the room, using the rulers at first, but discarding them after a while, so that you may deter-

IN GEOGRAPHY.

mine the correctness of the concepts which they are forming of these several distances.

You can best impart the idea of a mile by naming some two objects which are that distance apart. These objects should be familiar to all in the class, and if they can be seen from the school room, it will be an advantage. In order that the children may have a correct notion of a mile, it is not at all necessary that they should be able to tell you, “A mile equals three hundred and twenty rods.” They may be able to tell you this and yet not really know what a mile is. Remember, the work before you is to teach ideas , and not a mere form of words which, in many instances, are meaningless and empty.

Farm. — It may be that in the drawing class, or elsewhere, the children have already been taught form . If not, the subject should be introduced here. Begin by making a straight line and placing near it a curved one. A vertical line should have for its neighbor a horizontal line. These may be followed by parallel lines, both straight and curved, and by oblique lines.

It may be profitable at this point to review the work on distance, which can be done by having these lines made of various lengths.

The idea of angle should next be taught. Begin with the right angle, as this is the standard by which other kinds are determined and named. Show that the acute angle is sharper than the right angle, and the obtuse angle, blunter, hence the names. Let the pupils make several of each kind, and learn to name them rapidly.

By connecting the free ends of the lines forming an angle^ a figure having three angles is formed. Show why the name triangle is given to this figure. Ask the pupils to point to each of the angles, and tell to which of the kinds it belongs.. They should make several triangles; some with right angles,

IO

PREPARATORY WORK others with obtuse angles, and still others with three acute

Place a square on the blackboard, and get the children to see that its angles are right angles, and its sides, equal.

Near the square place a rectangle , and ask the children to point out any difference they may see between the two figures. Have your class draw them, both on their slates and on the board, and name objects whose sides are squares, or rectangles.

Describe a circle on the blackboard. Teach that the line you have just made is the circumference, and that the part of the surface of the board bounded by this line is the circle. All points in the circumference are equidistant from the center of the circle.

If you make these facts clear to your pupils, you will save them much confusion of ideas in after years.

angles.

SCHEME OF CHAPTER II.

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<u o o o f i. Idea of scale developed.

! r i. On the blackboard, north

side of room.

2. Position of different sides shown.

side of room.

i • Slate on desk. 2. Top of slate points north as the children draw.

2. On slate, i

5 . Position of furniture. -

3. Comparative length of sides, j 4. Doors and windows. j \

1. Teacher’s desk, stove, etc.

2. Number of rows of desks.

3. Number of desks in a row.

4* Position of each pupil’s l desk.

f 1. Judgment.

Comparative length of sides. J 2 * Measurement.

| 3. Scale fixed.

(,4. Drawing.

2. Position of gates, well, sidewalks, flower-beds, etc., shown on drawing.

1. Direction.

2. Where leading to.

f 1. Homes of the children.

{ 2. Post-office.

3. Places of note. 1 3. Churches.

4. Court House.

5. Parks.

1. Source.

2. Mouth.

3. Course.

4. Right bank.

1 5. Left bank.

6. Island.

7. Peninsula.

8. Gulf or bay.

9. Plain.

LESSONS AROUND HOME.

Flail of the Schoolroom — The children having mastered the ideas of direction, distance and form, are prepared to use them and should be required to do so in making a groundplan of the schoolroom. This will consist of as many straight lines properly united as the room has sides.

Before they can do this intelligently you must teach them the idea of scale , as used in geography. This is a delicate task and must be well accomplished if you hope for the best results thereafter. Tell the children that as you cannot draw, a line on the board as long as the room, you will let an inch on the board stand for a foot of the length of the room, so that if the room is thirty feet your drawing will be thirty inches. And if the room is twenty feet wide the width of the drawing will be twenty inches.

In copying the drawing on their slates it will probably be necessary for the pupils to make a quarter or a half of an inch stand for an inch on the board. This, however, will cause no confusion if they once get the idea of scale clearly fixed.

The north end or side of a room should be represented by the line next to the top of the slate, paper or blackboard; after which the position of the south, east and west sides will readily be determined.

If circumstances permit, place the drawing on the north side of the room, so that in copying it the children must face in that direction. This will be an advantage.

Having drawn the walls, ask the children to point out the proper position of the doors and windows. This they should do from actual measurement of the walls and of the drawings.

IN GEOGRAPHY.

No doubt you could do this work more rapidly and accurately than they can. It is not for your benefit, however, but for theirs. This is one way of determining whether they have mastered the idea of scale or not and if they are observing things for themselves, or depending on their teacher to observe for them — which is so often the case.

Ask the children to indicate on the drawing the position of your desk, the stove and such other articles as are usually kept in the schoolroom. Let them show the number of rows of desks, the number of desks in a row, their own desks and those of their friends.

TiLE SchDDl-yard. — As soon as the schoolroom with its furniture is drawn with a fair degree of accuracy, considering the age of the pupils, the school-yard may be sketched. This also should be drawn to scale. If necessary, in order to make room for the sketch of the school-yard on the slate, the schoolroom must now be drawn on a different scale from the one used before, as it and the yard should be on the same scale.

On this sketch mark the position of the gate, well, walks, flower-beds, etc.

Cover up the drawing that you assisted in placing on the blackboard and have the pupils reproduce it on the board from memory. Remove the covering and have them compare their sketch with yours, pointing out wherein theirs is faulty. Continue this work until satisfied with the results.

SdjaCEIlt StPEEtS. — If your school is in the city, place on the sketch a few of the principal streets, beginning with that on which the school building stands. Note their direction, and if they lead to any place of importance, call attention to the fact. If members of the class live on these streets, give them the privilege of showing the position of their homes, Mark the location of a few of the more important buildings, such as the Post-office, Court House, and Churches, also the Parks.

PREPARATORY WORK

How many streets it will be profitable to study and sketch, you must determine for yourself. There is danger of overdoing the matter, and keeping the pupils 'learning the names of unimportant streets, when they should be engaged in more desirable work.

If you are teaching in the country, or in a country village, the children will aid you materially in deciding what to show on the sketch, as they are acquainted with all the important objects in the vicinity, and will be ready to suggest their names. Make them your partners in the work, and you will find their interest in it increasing from day to day.

River DP Creek. — But whether in city or country, be certain to call attention to any river or creek that may be in the neighborhood. It is by the banks of this stream they must study the Amazon, Ganges, Nile, and the other great rivers of the world, if they ever study them in the true sense of that term. It is not probable that many of them will ever see those streams, hence, if you would aid in forming proper conceptions of these, as well as of all others in foreign lands, this is your opportunity. Do not allow it to pass by unimproved. If you do, those mighty rivers that receive the waters from the hills and distribute them to the plains, that gladden the inhabitants of many lands by assuring them of bountiful harvests, and that carry the commerce of nations on their bosoms, may for years be nothing more to these children than crooked, black lines drawn across the map.

By this home stream you can teach what is meant by the source of a river, the mouth of a river, the co7irse of a river, right bank of a river, the left bank , and the bed of a river. Here, also, you can help your pupils form proper notions of an island , pejiinsula, and gulf or bay .

In the same vicinity, the flam and plateau can be studied to advantage. And the neighboring knoll , assisted by the

IN GEOGRAPHY.

vivid description of the teacher, will grow into a mountain when necessary.

Do not concern yourself greatly about the definitions of these terms at this stage of the work. Rather be solicitous about the ideas your pupils are acquiring. Are they such as will enable them in after years to form correct mental pictures of far-off lands and scenes? If so, the definitions will be given correctly at the proper time. Confusion of definitions is generally due to confusion of ideas.

o

SCHEME OF CHAPTER III.

Map of Township.

Map of County.

Map of State.

1. Shape.

2. Size.

3. Position of home city.

4. Position of school.

' 1. Direction from School.

2. Where enter the Township.

3. Where leave the Township.

4. Course.

1. Number.

2. Where lead to.

7. Other cities or villages.

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6. Railroads.

1. Shape.

2. Number of Townships.

3. Position of home Township.

4. County j 1. Why so called.

Seat. ( 2. Direction from home.

) i. Direction from home.

2. Course.

3. Comparative size.

r 3 ( 1. Number.

6. Railroads, j 2> Where i ea d to.

^ 7. Other cities or villages.

r 1. Shape.

2. Fix boundaries.

3. Number of Counties.

4. Position of home County, f 1. Number.

2. Source.

3. Course.

4. Flow into what.

5. Comparative size.

£ n 1 j l - Why so called, o. <^api a . ^ 3b Direction from home.

7. Railroads. | 2< where lead to _

8. Important cities.

•I

5. Rivers. <

TtLE Township. — Place on the blackboard a diagram a foot square. Tell the children that this represents the township in which they live and that it is six miles square.* Ask them to represent it on their slates or paper by a diagram six inches square. On what scale is the township drawn on the board? On the slates?

Indicate the position of the home city in the township and the position of the school in the city. In what part of the city is the school? In what direction from the school is the river? Has any one of the boys been fishing in it? Did he catch any fish?

By means of a sharp, bright line show where the river enters the township, the direction in which it flows and where it passes out. Let the children draw a similar line on their slates.

Mark the position and direction of the railroads that pass through the city. Do the children know of any other towns on these railroads? If they do, show their position if in the township. Should they be outside and of some importance, promise that at some future time you will map them.

This is a good time to introduce the word map. The diagram on the board which the children have copied on their slates is a map. It shows the shape of the township, the position of the city in which the children live and possibly of some others.' It also shows the position of the rivers and railroads

*lf the home township is not a square and of the size here described, modify the diagram so that it will show the correct shape and size.

PREPARATORY WORK with their direction. But it does not show an actual city with streets, parks and houses. Its railroads and rivers are simply lines and its pond or lake, if there is any, is only a portion of the board surrounded by an irregular line.

Impress upon your pupils the difference between the thing and its symbol. On the map are only symbols.

TllE H min ty, — Adjoining the township now drawn are other townships, beyond these are still others and all are probably of the same shape and size. By grouping a number of these townships and, it may be, parts of others together, we form a county.

Show on your sketch the number of townships and parts of townships in your county. Indicate the home township and the city in which you live. Locate the County-seat and explain to your pupils what is meant by the term. Show one or two of the principal rivers in the county. Are they navigable P Do they furnish water-power ? What articles are manufactured along their banks P

Mark the railroads learned in the township and show where they leave the county. Three or four other cities may be taken in addition to the county-seat and the home city.

If there are any hills in the county note their position, especially if in the neighborhood of the schoolhouse.

Do not attempt too much blit do well what you attempt .

The StatEi — There is much difference of opinion among good teachers as to the advisability of teaching the geography of the state at this stage of the children’s progress. If you decide that it is best for your pupils to know something of the state as a whole before leaving this preparatory work, the following plan is offered for your consideration:

“Our county is bounded by other counties, and these by still others, etc., etc. There are 102 counties in our State. *

* Illinois*

IN GEOGRAPHY.

These differ greatly in shape and size. Who knows the shape of our county? How does it rank in size, among the largest, or the smallest? We will now make a map of our State, so that we may learn its shape.

You may all take your places at the blackboard. As high on the board as you can reach conveniently, draw a horizontal, dotted line, fifteen inches in length, for the northern boundary . North of this line is the State of Wisconsin. There is neither mountain range nor river between the two States. For most of the distance there is a road, half of which lies in either State; so that a person standing in the middle can have one foot in Illinois and the other in Wisconsin. There is nothing about it, however, to indicate that it is the boundary between two States. The line on the board simply shows the shape of

the north end of the one State, and of the south end of the

*

other.

From the east end of this line draw a continuous line five and a half inches in length, or a little over a third as long as the one already drawn, and extending east of south. This line is somewhat curved, and represents the shore line of that portion of Lake Michigan which borders on Illinois.

From the south end of the continuous line, and extending south, draw a dotted line three times its length. East of this line is Indiana.

South from the south end of the line just drawn the two States are separated by the Wabash River which rises in the State east of Indiana, flows southwest, in the main, until it becomes the boundary line, and then west of south to the Ohio River. The distance from the point at which the Wabash begins to form the boundary, to its mouth, equals two-thirds of the distance from that point to the lake.

Draw a line nine inches long and extending west from the mouth of the Wabash. The west end of this line marks a point in the Mississippi River. Parallel to this line and equi-

20 PREPARATORY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY.

distant from it and the northern boundary of the State, draw another, twenty-two inches in length; this will pass through the widest part of the State, and its west end will mark another point in the Mississippi.

Having three points to guide you, you may now sketch the Mississippi River, being careful to show its principal bends, so that the west side of the State may be properly shaped.

Finish the outline of the State by sketching the portion of the Ohio River that flows along its border. Notice that this river separates Illinois from Kentucky, and that the Mississippi separates it from Iowa and Missouri.”

The pupils will find it more profitable, and easier, to sketch at first from dictation as indicated above, and afterwards from measurements and observations by themselves, than by any system of triangulation or squares with which the writer is acquainted. It takes about as much time and labor to make the “frame work” as it does to make the sketch; and when made it aids but little. Besides, such drawing has but slight educational value; there is too much machinery about it.

Mark the position of the home city. Home is the place the children know best, and by which they will locate all others. Place two or three of the principal rivers of the State on the map, showing their direction, and into what they flow. Locate the county-seat, and in addition, the capital and a few of the most important cities.

If the home railroads pass to any of these cities, indicate the fact on the sketch.

This will make the map full enough for the present, and afford you a good foundation on which to build hereafter.

Object Lessons.

SCHEME OF CHAPTER IV.

i. Purpose.

On Mining and Minerals.

f i. To prepare pupils to interpret the map correctly.

* 2. To enable pupils to appreciate definitions.

f i. Found in what part I of the State.

i i. CoaM

3. On Manufactures.^

4. On Climate.

2. How obtained.

3. Its importance.

1. Meaning of \ 2. Manufacturer

[3. Manufactory.

2. Articles manufactured near home.

' 1. Houses.

1. Cold day leads 2. Food, to talk on cold^ 3. Dress, countries. | 4. Manner

l of travel.

1. Houses.

2. Food.

wr j 3. Dress.

W arm day I 0 ^ .

leads to talk ^ ^ .

‘ lly obtained.

Productions.

1. Meaning of term.

5. On Agriculture. J 2. Articles cultivated near home.

| 3 * Articles cultivated in foreign L countries, i. Meaning of term.

6. On Commerce. * 2. How carried on.

[3. Benefits.

i on warm countries.

CHAPTER IV.

OBJECT LESSONS.

A pleasant and profitable way of closing the Preparatory Geography is by a series of object lessons on common things. If the topics are wisely chosen and given in an interesting manner they will prove of great value. It is not necessary that they should follow each other in any special order. The order should be determined largely by circumstances. The purpose is to prepare the pupils to appreciate definitions which they will afterwards meet in their text-books, and which without this preparation would be to them for years nothing but words.

Mining and Minerals I — The building of a coal fire will suggest several lessons on this topic. The coal which keeps the schoolroom and the homes of so many of the children warm in winter is a mineral. If there is no coal-mine in the neighborhood, it may be necessary to tell them that coal is obtained by digging into the side of the hills or down into the ground several hundred feet. The men who dig the coal are called miners and the digging is called mining.

Picture to your pupils these miners working underground, each with a small lamo fastened to his hat. Describe the streets and alleys they are forming, the pillars left to support the roof, the animals hauling the coal to the opening or shaft and the method of raising the coal to the surface.

If coal is found in your State show on the sketch the limits of the coal-fields.

How many kinds of coal are there? Are they all found in your State? If not, which kind is found? With which kind is the schoolroom heated ? &c. What is charcoal ?

PREPARATORY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY.

2 3

These items will interest your class and easily lead to other minerals, the manner of mining them and their uses.

Manufactures. — One who makes anything is said to manufacture it, and he is a manufacturer . The blacksmith makes horseshoes, wagon-tires and other articles, hence he is a manufacturer. The men who make wagons, plows, reapers, mowers, pumps, etc., are manufacturers. Some make carpets, calicoes, silks and other kinds of cloth; they, too, are manufacturers. The buildings in which the articles are made are manufactories .

Are the men who make boots and shoes manufacturers? Those who make tables and chairs? What articles are manufactured in your neighborhood?

Climate — Excellent opportunities for teaching the idea of climate will present themselves through the school year. A cold winter’s day is a suitable time to state that in some countries the most of the days are as cold as that. The people dress in skins in order to keep. warm. Many of them live in snow houses much of the time and travel in sleds drawn by dogs. It is too cold to cultivate the land, consequently the people have no corn, wheat, oats or vegetables except what little may be sent them from other countries. They live chiefly on fish and meats of different kinds.

On a hot day you can call attention to the fact that some countries have hot weather throughout the year. The people do not need warm houses, and wear but little clothing. Various kinds of crops are produced in abundance and with little labor. Many food plants and fruits grow without being cared for by man. The children never coast nor skate, nor have the pleasure of building snow forts or of snowballing one another.

PREPARATORY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY

Agriculture. — The man who plows the ground, puts in the seed and harvests the crops is engaged in agriculture , or farming.

What are the principal crops cultivated in this neighborhood? In this County? In this State? Does coffee grow in this state? How does it grow? From what is sugar made? Does that grow in this State? Have you seen any of it? How does tea grow? Does it grow in this State? Where does it grow?

CcmmerCE. — The children will now see that we use many articles such as coffee, tea, sugar, lemons, oranges, &c., that do not grow in our country. The same is true of some of our clothing and of much of the furniture in our homes; the materials of which they are made are not produced in our State. Yet we should not like to do without them. So we sell what we do not need of the articles produced and made in our State, and buy the other necessary articles from men who bring them from other states and countries. This buying and selling is co?nmcrce .

These few object lessons will suggest others on the same or kindred topics to the thoughtful teacher. If judiciously managed they will prove to be excellent appetizers for the fuller meal which is to follow, causing pupils to anticipate it with pleasure and partake of it with a zest and heartiness to which they would otherwise be strangers.

Note: Monteith’s Easy Lessons in Popular Science con-

tains much valuable matter for this class of work.

. Continents. 2. Earth.

SCHEME OF CHAPTER I.

1. Introductory Remarks.

j 1. Leading to definition. ( 2. On use of text-book.

f i. Shape.

i

2. Motion.

Spherical. A few simple proofs.

( 1. On its axis — Day and night.