A history of Rome to the battle of Actium

Front matter

A HISTORY OF ROME

,mm

TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM

Preface

To write the history of a great people during a course of more than seven hundred years in about as many pages is a task of which the difficulty, best appreciated by those who have attempted it, may not unfairly plead for leniency of construction. No one can be more conscious than the author of such a book that there are many things that had better have been otherwise than they are ; that expansion would have been advisable here and compression there ; that much is to be said against some views that he has adopted as true, and much in fiivour of others that he has passed by or rejected. Such a writer can only plead that he has used his judgment honestly, and studied his authorities with such diligence and intelligence as he possessed ; and that neither space nor the purpose of his book admitted of frequent or lengthy discussions on disputed points.

As it was my object to present in as vivid a manner as possible the wonderful story of the gradual extension of the power of a single city over so large a part of the known world, I have dwelt perhaps sometimes at too great length on the state of the countries conquered and the details of their conquest. But Vergil saw that the keynote of Roman history was parcere subiectis et debellare superbos, and it is impossible, I think, that a history of Rome and her mission in the world can be other than a warlike one. The viii HISTORY OF ROME

Republic won what the Empire organised ; and as each province was added some new principle of management was evolved which has had to be noticed at the time. I have, however, treated in separate chapters the internal development of the State up to the time of the Gracchi. The constitutional changes after that time are so closely entangled with foreign affairs that it is hardly possible to treat them so entirely by themselves. Yet I have attempted to set them forth clearly in the course of my narrative, along with some indication of the development of literature and the change of social habits.^ By the mechanical means of printing at the head of the chapters the names and dates of Italian colonies, provinces, and numbers of the census, I have tried to draw attention to the gradual expansion of the people and their Empire.

The book is founded throughout on the ancient authorities ; and I have placed at the end of each chapter the names of those authorities on which it rests, as likely to be useful to students who care to read and compare for themselves ; but except in special cases I have not given references for each statement of the text. I shall seem no doubt to some to have been too credulous in regard to them. But the great genius of Niebuhr seems almost a warning against the construction of history by arbitrary selection of what to believe or disbelieve among a number of facts resting on precisely the same authority ; and I must be pardoned if I cannot always follow Lewis or Ihne in the summary rejection of all history up to and often beyond the time of Pyrrhus ; and if it has seemed to me that small discrepancies and apparent, though often not real, contradictions and repetitions have been seized upon to discredit this or that writer's

1 If chapters viii. xiii. xvi, xxi. xxvi. xxxv. xl. are read consecutively, what I have to say on this branch of the subject will be made clear.

PREFACE ix

statement when it conflicts with a favourite theory or a modern notion of the probable. I ' have tried to judge fairly in each instance, and have not hesitated to reject when a good case has been made out. No doubt human nature is the same now as it was two thousand years ago ; but human knowledge is not the same, and we must sometimes admit that men acted then as they would not act to-day. Even now the unreasonableness of a measure is not a complete security against its being adopted.

Though the book is grounded on the ancient writers, it is almost superfluous to say that I also owe infinite obligations, directly or indirectly, to the great names that have illuminated Roman history, from Niebuhr and Arnold to Zwegler, Mommsen, Drumann, Ihne, Merivale, Duruy, and Pelham ; to the encyclopaedic work on Roman Antiquities and Polity of Marquardt and Mommsen ; to our own dictionaries of Biography, Geography, and Antiquities ; to Willem's le Senat and Droit Public Roinain ; and to many works on separate episodes, such as Reinach's Mithridate Eupaior ; Napoleon's and Col. Stoffel's Jules Cesar; and others. It is impossible to acknowledge such obligations in detail. Every one knows that these books must be continually used.

Lastly, I have the pleasant task of acknowledging the help of various friends, who have read parts of my book in proof and helped me with suggestions and corrections. They are Mr. W. T. Arnold, author oi Roman Provincial Administration ; Mr. A. W. W. Dale, Fellow of Trinity Hall ; Messrs. \V. Chawner and P. Giles, Fellows of Emmanuel College ; Mr. A. A. Tilley, Fellow of King's College. I would add a word of thanks to the Printers, whose patience, I fear, has often been tried but has never failed ; and to my friends the Publishers, who have been always indulgent in granting requests and pardoning delays.

Cambridge, April 1894.

Contents

The Beginnings of Rome and the Regal Period B-t:. 753-509

Chapter I

The consolidation of Italy — Four periods of Roman history: I. Rise of the city; II, Conquest of Italy; III. The growth of a foreign dominion; IV. Civil wars, leading to the rule of a single Emperor — The place of Roman in universal history — Its continuity ..... Page i

CHAPTER H

The lie of the Italian peninsula — The ancient limitation of the name — Its subsequent enlargement, first,- about B.C. 280, up to the Rubicon, and secondly, in the time of Augustus, up to the Alps — The parcelling out of the peninsula by the Apennines — The difterent character of the Apennines in the centre and south of Italy — Their contiguity to the sea, and the consequent fewness of important rivers— On the north of the Apennines, Gallia Cisalpina ; on the west, Etruria, Lo^tium, Campania; on the east, the Senones, Picenum, Pretutiani, Vestini, Marrucini, p'rentani, Apulia, Calabria; in the centre, Umbria, Samnium ( — Sabini, Marsi, Samnites), Piccntini : continued into Lucania and Bruttium — Etfect of the geographical formation on the history of Italy, early causing a struggle between highlanders and men of the plain

CHAPTER HI

The inhabitants of Italy — Iberian and Ligurian tribes in Italy before the beginning of history — First to arrive the OSCANS and Iapygians; followed by the Umbro-Latins, dividing into Umbrians and Latini — (2) The Sabellians or Sabines, which branch off as Samnites, Picentes, Peligni, and perhaps Marsi, Marrucini, and Vestini — The Samnites branch off into Frentani, Lucani, Apulia, Bruttium — (3) The Etruscans, their occupation of the north basin of the Po, and partial occupation of the south — Their gradual expulsion by (3) the CELTS, who came over the Alps in various waves, whence North Italy is called Gallia Cisalpina, which includes the probably distinct tribes of the Ligures and Veneti— (4) The GREEK colonies in southern Italy mingle with Oenotrians and Ausonians and Itali, but are eventually overrun by Bruttii, Lucani, and Apuli, who give their names to the districts . Page 10 xii HISTORY OF ROME

CHAPTER IV

Origin of Rome— Heroic legends of its foundation— Settlement of Aeneas in Italy— His wars with the Rutuli— His supremacy over the Prisci Latini— His son removes to Alba from Lavinium— The Aiban kings— The two sons of Proca, Numitor and Amulius— The birth of Romulus and Remus, and their education by shepherds— They restore their grandfather Numitor to the throne of Alba— Their foundation of a new city— Death of Remus— Romulus founds the city on the Palatine and calls it ROME— The gradual extension of the Palatine city to include the Septimontium— The Roman era B.C. 753

CHAPTER V

The situation of Rome— Latium, its different meanings— ROMULUS, 753-71^— The foundation of the city and earliest institutions— The joint reign with Titus Tatius— Laws of Romulus, and his death— Numa Pom pi li us, his religious institutions and laws— The temple of Vesta and the Regia; the flamens, vestals, and Salii— His calendar— TULLUS HOSTILIUS— The destruction of Alba Longa — Wars with the Sabines — The Horatii and Curiatii — Provocatio — ANGUS Marcius — Makes the sacra known to all — Wars with the Latins — The jus fetiale — The pons sublicius and fossa quiritiurn — L. TarquiniUS Priscus — His arrival from Tarquinii, begins temple on Capitoline, city walls, circus maximus, and cloacae— W'\s murder— Servius Tullius, the agger and completion of town walls — His reforms, the four tribes, and the 193 centuries distributed in five classes — The comitia curiata and cotnitia centuriata — The object and results of his reform — The patricians and plebeians — His first census — His death — TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS — His oppression of the Senate— His wars with the Volscians — Capture of Gabii — His works in Rome and his colonies — The Sibyl — Embassy to Delphi — Siege of Ardea — The story of Lucretia — Expulsion of the Tarquins — The credibility of the legerids — The authorities on which they rest — Their value . Page 28

The Growth of Rome to the end of the Latl\ League B.C. 509-338

CHAPTER VI

The effect of the Revolution on the position of Rome in Latium — Attempts of the Tarquins to recover their property and royalty — Battle with the Veientines and people of Tarquinii on the Naebian meadow — Etruscan invasion under Porsena — Stories of Scaevola and Cloelia — Subjection of Rome to the Etruscans — Defeat of Etruscans before Aricia — Isolation of Rome in Latium — The Latins attack Rome — Battle of the lake Regillus — Gradual recovery of Roman power, and return to the Latin League (492) — Wars with the Sabines, Volscians, Aequians, Hernici — Effect upon the Roman character — Tales of Coriolanus and Cincinnatus . . Page 61

CHAPTER VII

Enmity of Veii and Rome — State of Etruria in fifth century B.C. — General movement against Hellenism — The Fabii — Farther movements of Veientines and

CONTENTS xiii

Sabines — Fidenae and Veii — A. Cornelius Cossus and the spolia opima — The Etruscan League refuse help to Veii — Twenty years' truce (425) — Samnites drive the Etruscans from Campania — Last war with Veii, its siege and fall (405-396) — The effect of the long siege — The Alban lake — M. Furius Camillus — Stories connected with the fall of Veii — Fall of Melpum — Capture of Falerii, Volsinii, and Sutrium ...... Page 'jj

CHAPTER VIII

The early Republican government foiinded on that of the kings — Consuls, quaestors, and people — Effect of Servian reforjns — Disabilities of the plebs — Roman civitas — Laws and Fatria Potestas — Perduellio and quaestiottes — Provocatio — Other laws of Poplicola — The ownership of land — Laiv of debt — The nexi — Appius Claudius refuses relief to the nexi — Secession to the Sacred Mount — Tribunes of the plebs appointed: their powers, duties, number, and manner of election — Aediles and their duties — Agrarian law of Spurius Cassius : His impeachment and death {48s) — Lex Publilia Voleronis (^7/) — Proposal by Terentilius to limit and define the power of the consuls — The embassy to Greece (^^j) — The first decemvirate {451^ — 7)4<? ten tables — The second decemvirate {450) — • Change in policy of Appius Claudius — The two nexv tables — Murder of Sicinius and story of Virginia — Decemvirs deposed and consuls and tribunes elected — Valerio-Horatian laws — Their effects — The laws of the twelve tables — The lex Canuleia {44s) — Tribuni militares consular potestate — Appoifitment of censors — Increase of poverty — Murder of Spurius Maelius {4jg) — The four quaestorships open to plebeians {421) — Exile of Camillus — The tribunes in the Senate — The Gallic invasion — Surnrnary of laws .... Page 89

CHAPTER IX

The Gauls in Italy — The Senones and Lingones attack Clusium — Roman envoys at Clusium join in the battle — The Romans refuse satisfaction — Advance of Brennus on Rome — Battle of the Allia (midsummer 390) — Burning of Rome and defence of the Capitol by Manlius — Camillus at Ardea — His recall and appointment as dictator — Saving cff the Capitol by the geese— Exhaustion of the Gauls by pestilence — They overrun the campagna — Recalled home by an invasion of the Veneti — Camillus said to have attacked and retaken gold and standards — Effects of the capture on Rome . . . Page 114

CHAPTER X

Hostilities break out against Rome after the departure of the Gauls — Camillus conquers the Etruscans, Volscians, and Aequians (389) — Fresh war with Volscians and Etruscans; capture of Sutrium and Nepete (386) — The Volscians joined by some of the Latini and Hernici ; colony sent to Satricum (385) — Pestilence — Rebellions at Lanuvium, Circeii, Velitrae, Praeneste (383- 382) — War with Volscians and rebellion at Tusculum (381) — Cincinnatus conquers the rebellious Praenestines (380) — A Roman disaster in Volscian territory (379) — Conquest of Volscians and Latins (378-377) — The Gauls (367- 282)— The first Samnite war (343-342)— The Latin rebellion— T. Manlius Torquatus (340-339) — Dissolution of the Latin League, and last struggles of the Latin towns (338-336) — First dramatic shows . . Page 123

XIV HISTORY OF ROME

The Conquest of Italy, b.c. 326-265 CHAPTER XI

Magna Graecia — Invitation from Tarentum to Archidamus (338) and Alexander (333) — Alexander's treaty with Rome — Palaepolis garrisoned by Samnites — War declared with Samnites (326) — Treaty with Neapolis — Confederacy in south Italy — The Caudine Forks — The Senate refuse the terms of Pontius (321) — Revolt of Volscian towns — Capture of Luceria, victories in Apulia and Lucania, revolt and recovery of Sora (320-314) — Destruction of Ausones and colonising of Luceria (314-313) — Victory over Samnites at Cinna (313) — Development of Roman power in Italy, and growth of navy (313-312) — Etruscan war and battle at the Vadimonian lake (311-309) — Wars with Samnites and Hernici (308-306) — Peace with Samnites (304) . . Page 135

CHAPTER XII

Between the second and third Samnite wars (303-298) — Complaint of the Lucanians and the beginning of the third Samnite war (298)— The Samnites league with Etruscans and Gauls (296) — Failures of Appius Claudius Caecus (296) — Battle of Sentinum (295) — Last five years of the war (294-290) — The legiones linteatae — Battle of Aquilonia (293) — Capture and execution of C. Pontius (292) — Peace with the Samnites (290), and their subsequent attitude towards Rome ...... Page 152

CHAPTER XIII

The period {jgo-286) full of wars, and not marked by literary production — Great growth of Rome witnessed by increase of tribes, numbers, colonies — The struggles between patricians and plebeians — Proposed relief of poverty ; M. Manlius {3^5) — Measures against usury {jyS-'zgj) — Abolition ^/ nexus {326) — Licinian rogations proposed {376) : their purpose, resistance to them, carried {j6y)— The praetor — Curule aedile — Decemviri sacrorum — The comitia tributa — First plebeian censor (J57)— Leges Publiliae {jjg)— First plebeian praetor {336) — Censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus {312-300) — His innovations and their aim — Cn. Flavins publishes the legal formulae {303) — Lex Ogulnia {2g6) — Lex Hortensia {286)— The new nobility and the Senate— Stories of the wife of Licinius and of the Chapel of Castitas Patricia— /^/>j/ law against ambitus {35^) — Laws against usury — Sumptuary laws . . . Page 163

CHAPTER XIV

From the end of the third Samnite war to the invasion of Pyrrhus (B.C. 290-280) —Wars with Senones and Boii with Etruscan contingents— Defeat of the Lucani and Bruttii in the territory of Thurii— Quarrel with Tarentum, and the invitation to Pyrrhus ...... Page 176

CHAPTER XV

Early life of PYRRHUS— He comes to Tarentum— Message to the Roman consul —Battles of Pandosia (Heraclea), AscuLUM (280-279)— State of Sicily—

CONTENTS

Pyrrhus goes to Syracuse — Attacks the Mamertines and Carthaginians : takes Agrigentum, Panormus, Hercte, and other towns — Besieges Lilybaeum unsuccessfully — Recalled to Italy^ (278-275) — Battle of Beneventum (275) — Pyrrhus retires to Tarentum and returns to Epirus (274) — The Romans take Tarentum and Rhegium : subdue Lucania, Bruttium, and Calabria, and the Picentines, and become supreme in Italy (274-265) . . Page 183

Contest with Carthage for supremacy in the Mediterranean, B.C. 264-201

CHAPTER XVI

The limitations of consular powers, and their devolution on other curule magistrates, censors, and praetors — The aediles, quaestors, praefectus urbis, and sacred colleges — The legion, its enrolment, numbers, officers, discipline, encarnpment, and disposition in the field ..... Page 202

CHAPTER XVII

Seeds of hostility between Rome and Carthage — Object of the first Punic war was Sicily — The Phoenicians and Greeks in Sicily — The Sicani, Elymi, and Siceli confused by the Romans with Greek Siceliots — Character of Sicilian Greeks — Power of Syracuse — Carthage, its foundation, constitution, and the character of its people — Their possessions in Sicily — The boundary of the Halycus — Cause of the Romans coming to Sicily, and the results of the war to the two peoples contrasted — Romans and Carthaginians compared — Judgment of Polybius— The city and harbours of Carthage . . . Page 219

CHAPTER XVIII

First Punic war — First Period (264-262) — Help sent to Messana at the request of the Mamertini — Claudius enters Messana — Battle with Hiero, and with the Carthaginians — The siege of Syracuse (263) — The consuls lay siege to Agrigentum — Hiero makes alliance with Rome — Many cities in Italy join the Romans— Fall of Agrigentum (262). SECOND Period (261-255)— The Romans build a fleet — Loss of the consul Scipio — Victory of Duiiius at Mylae (260) — Relief of Segesta, siege of Hippana, Mytistratum, Camarina (259-258)— Naval battle off Tyndaris (257)— Battle of ECNOMUS, the Romans land in Africa : after successful campaign Regulus is left for the winter at Clupea with half the army (256) — Defeat and capture of REGULUS (255) Page 233

CHAPTER XIX

Third Period (255-251) — The Romans increase their fleet, but abandon Clupea — The fleet is lost in a storm (259) — A fleet is again built and Panormus is taken (254) — The Roman fleet is again wrecked (253) — The Romans abandon the sea, but Himera, Thermae, and Lipara are taken, the last by help of ships from Hiero (252) — Victory of Metellus at Panormus — Alleged mission of M. Regulus — The Carthaginians remove the people of Selinus to Lilybaeum (251). Fourth Period (250-241)- The Romans again build a fleet and xvi HISTORY OF ROME invest LiLYBAEUM (250)— Great defeat of Claudius at Drepana— Wreck of a large fleet of transports carrying provisions to the camp at Lilybaeum — C. Junius Pullus seizes Eryx (249)— Siege of Lilybaeum continued (248) — Hamilcar Barcas comes to Sicily, and occupies Hercte (247)— Hasdrubal seizes Eryx and besieges the Romans on the summit of the mountain, and is himself besieged in Eryx— Frequent but indecisive engagements at Lilybaeum, Eryx, and Hercte (246-243)— The Romans once more build a fleet (243) — Great victory of LUTATIUS at the Aegates islands (loth March)— The Carthaginians evacuate SICILY, which became a PROVINCE (241) . Page 253

CHAPTER XX

Progress in Italy during the first Punic war— Six days' campaign against Falerii (241) — Mutiny of mercenaries in Carthage — The " truceless war " (241-238) —Sardinia surrendered to Rome (238)— Wars with Ligurians and Boii (239- 237) — Temple of Janus closed (235) — Illyrian war (229-228) — Embassies to Aetolian and Achaean Leagues (228)— Agrarian law of Gaius Flaminius (232) — Gallic war (225-221) — The Via Flaminia (220) . . Page 269

CHAPTER XXI

Social distinctions — Apparent change in character and influence of Senate and the aristocracy — Increase in number of slaves, and consequences of it — The Libertini and Peregrini — The games — Gladiators — Funerals — Women a?td divorce — A'^iJW) nobles — Greek irifluence on personal habits, arid on literature — Livius Andronicus — Cn. Naevius — Absence of prose writings . . . Page 283

CHAPTER XXII

Second Punic war— FIRST Period, from 219 to spring of 217 — Origin of the war, Carthaginian expansion in Spain, Hamilcar, 238-229; Hasdrubal, 229-221; Hannibal, 221-218 — Roman treaty with Hasdrubal confining the Carthaginian supremacy in Spain to the country south of the Ebro (228) — Founding of New Carthage about the same time — The Romans make treaty of friendship with the semi-Greek communities of Emporiae and Saguntum — Hannibal becomes general of the Carthaginian forces in Africa and Spain (221) — He subdues the Olcades (221), the Vaccaei (220) — The Saguntines in alarm appeal to Rome — Roman commissioners visit Hannibal in the winter 220, ordering him to abstain from attacking Saguntum, or from crossing the Ebro — They then go to Carthage — The second Illyrian war (219) — Hannibal takes Saguntum after a siege of seven months (219) — The Romans send an embassy to Carthage demanding the surrender of Hannibal, and on the refusal of the Carthaginian Senate Fabius declares war (219-218) — Hannibal starts from New Carthage in the early summer of 218— Subdues Spain north of the Ebro, and puts it under the care of Hanno ; crosses the Pyrenees and arrives at the Rhone while Scipio is still only at Marseilles (September, 218)— P. Cornelius Scipio finding himself too late, sends on his brother Gnaeus to Spain, returns himself to Italy with a few men, and takes over the legions of the praetors and awaits Hannibal on the Po — Hannibal crosses the Alps and descends into the basin of the Po, takes Turin and defeats Scipio's cavalry on the TICINUS— Scipio (wounded) retires to the Trebia near Placentia, south of the Po — He is joined by the other consul Sempronius Longus from Ariminum^

CONTENTS xvii

Defeat of Sempronius on the Trebia — The Romans go into winter quarters at Placentia and Cremona — Meanwhile Gnaeus Scipio defeats and captures Hanno in Spain, and secures the country north of the Ebro (summer of 2i8) . . . . ' . . . . . Page 289

CHAPTER XXIII

Flaminius enters upon his consulship at Ariminum (217)— Hannibal marches into Etruria — His sufferings in the marshes of the Arno — Battle of the Thrasy- MENE Lake — Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (Cunctator) baffles Hannibal, who enters Campania, but finds it unsuitable for winter quarters — He makes his way back to Apulia by a stratagem, and encamps near Gerunium — Minucius made equal to Fabius, but defeated by Hannibal — Preparations in the winter of 217-216 — P. Terentius Varro — The BATTLE OF Cannae — Courage and activity of Varro after the battle — His return to Rome Page 313

CHAPTER XXIV

Hannibal, after Cannae, is joined by Italian towns — Enters Campania, recoils from Naples, but is joined by Capua — Movements of Marcellus — The Castra Claudiana. SPAIN — Defeat of Hasdrubal and diversion of Carthaginian reinforcements from Italy (216) — Hannibal winters in Capua (216-215) — Takes Casilinum (215) — Fall of Postumius. SICILY — Death of Hiero — Hieronymus joins Carthage — Revolution at Syracuse and death of Hieronymus (215) — Hippocrates and Epicydes at Syracuse defy the Romans — Marcellus in Sicily — Siege of Syracuse (214-212) — The inventions of Archimedes —Hanno at Agrigentum (212). ITALY (214-207)— Hannibal in Campania — Goes to Tarentum (214)— Fabius takes Arpi — Hannibal takes Tarentum (212) — Livius holds the^ citadel (212-210) — Siege of Capua — Hannibal's march on Rome — Fall of Capua and settlement of Campania (211) — Fall of Cn, Fulvius at Herdonia — Three days' fighting in Lucania — Marcellus confined to Venusia (210) — Fabius recovers TarentuiM (209) — Fall of Marcellus (208) — Defeat of Hasdrubal on the Metaurus (207) . . Page 331

CHAPTER XXV

Change in the location of the war — Events in Sicily from 210 and settlement of the island — The war in Spain from 215 — Recovery of Saguntum — Syphax — Fall of the Scipios (212) — Gallantry of L, Marcius — C. Claudius in Spain outwitted by Hasdrubal (211-210) — Character of P. Cornelius Scipio — Elected proconsul for Spain (211) — His first year in Spain spent in negotiations (210-209) — Capture of New CaRiHAGE and release of hostages (209) — Battle of Baecula and departure of Hasdrubal for Italy (208) — Battle of Ilipa — Scipio's visit to Syphax : his illness, and the mutiny on the Sucro — His interview with Masannasa — The defeat of Indibilis and Mandonius (207-206) — Scipio returns to Rome (206-205) — Scipio elected consul lias Sicily as his province, and prepares to invade Africa (205) — The distur'ia.ice at Locri ar accusations of Scipio (205-204) — He crosses to Africa, is j jined by Masani, a, and winters near Utica (204-203) — Storm and burning of the camps of Hasdrubal and Syphax (203) — Hannibal returns to Africa (203) — Negotiations for peace broken off— Hannibal's interview with Scipio — Victory at Zama and terms imposed on Carthage (202) ..... Page 360

Growth of the Provincial Empire, b.c. 200-133

CHAPTER XXVI

Settleinent of Italy after the second Punic war — Changes in Roman life during the epoch — The Senate — The army — Tendency to leave country life — Literature: EnniUS, PlautuS — Their illustration of city life — Their identification of Greek and Roman gods— ChniO and country life . . . Page 395

CHAPTER XXVn

The state of Asia and Greece from 323 to 215 — The development of the three great kingdoms of Egypt, Asia, and Macedonia — The lesser Asiatic powers, Pergamos, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Galatia — The extent of the Macedonian influence in Asia and Greece — The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues — The accession of Philip V. — He conceives the idea of invading Italy — His treaty with Hannibal — The Romans declare war with him (215) — His defeat at Apollonia — His vigorous measures and victory over the Aetolians at Lamia (209) — The war languishes for some time (208-206), but the Romans, by the advice of Sulpicius, are unwilling to make peace — The Aetolians therefore make a separate peace with Philip : followed by general pacification at Phoenice (205) ....... Page 408

CHAPTER XXVni

The conduct of king Philip during the peace of 205-200 — His league with Antiochus against Egypt (205), and his attacks on the Cyclades and Thracian Chersonese of Asia (202-201) — The Rhodians and king Attains declare war with him (201) — Appeals from Ptolemy and the Greek states to Rome — The Roman commissioners in Egypt and .Greece (203-201) — The Romans proclaim war (200) — P. Sulpicius Galba lands in Epirus and sends aid to Athens — Ineffective campaigns of 200 and 199 — Arrival of T. Quintius Flamininus (198) — Victory of Flamininus in the Antigoneian Pass and his march through Greece — The Achaean League join Rome (198) — Peace congress of Nicaea fails (198-197) — Campaign of 197 and battle of Cynos- CEPHALAE — Freedom of some Greek states proclaimed at Isthmian games (196) — War with Nabis of Sparta, settlement of Greece and triumph of Flamininus (195-194) ...... Page 423

CHAPTER XXIX

I. The Boil— The importance of the struggle with them and the Ligures— The Boii attack Cremona and Placentia (199)— The Insubres help the Boii, and are defeated by C. Cornelius Cethegus (197)— Marcellus takes Felsina (196) — L. Cornelius Merula defeats the Boii, but is refused a triumph (193)— Scipio Nasica finally conquers the Boii (191) — The province of Gaul informal from 191, formal from 181 — Road made from Bononia to Arretium, and the construction of the via Aemilia (187)— Colonies at POLLENTIA, PiSAURUM, BoNONiA, Parma, Mutina, and Aquileia (189-183)— Ligures: The Friniates and Apuani threaten Pisae and Bononia (187), defeat Q. Marcius (186), but are defeated by M. Sempronius Tuditanus (186), and finally crushed by L. Aemilius Paullus (181), and are transferred by M. Baebius to

CONTENTS xix

Samnium (i8o)— Colonies at PiSAE and Luna. II. Spain — Extent of Roman power in Spain — The limits of the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Ulterior — Hostility of the Celtiberi (205-198) — Appointment of two additional praetors for Spain (197)— Serious risings (197-196)— Cato comes to Spain as consul, defeats the Spaniards near Emporiae, and advances to Tarraco — Causes the towns to throw down their walls — Assists the praetor of Hispania Ulterior — Takes Vergium Castrum (195-194) — Reverses of Sex, Digitius (194-193) — P, Cornelius Scipio Cn. f. conquers the Lusitani— C. Flaminius the Oretani (193-192) — Twelve years comparative peace in Spain (191-179) Great Celtiberian rising ( 18 1-179)— Victories of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus and his settlement (179-178) ..... Page 450

CHAPTER XXX

Greece after the settlement of Flamininus (194-193) — Discontent of the Aetolians — They resolve to call in Antiochus — The kingdom and early reign of Antiochus — His confederacy with Philip for the partition of Egypt — He occupies the Thracian Chersonese — His haughty answer to the Roman envoys — Hannibal at his court — Hannibal's plan rejected — Nabis of Sparta breaks the terms of his treaty, and the Roman fleet come to Peloponnesus — Death of Nabis (192) — Preparations in Rome — The Aetolians occupy Demetrias and invite Antiochus to liberate Greece — Antiochus arrives in Phthiotis and is proclaimed strategus of the Aetolians at the congress at Lamia — He takes Chalcis (192) — He attempts to form a Greek confederation — Decay of his forces in the winter of 192-191 — M'. Acilius Glabrio comes to Thessaly in 190 — Defeat of Antiochus at THERMOPYLAE, who returns to Asia — L, Cornelius Scipio with his brother Africanus come to Greece in July 189, grant six months' truce to the Aetolians and march to the Hellespont — Meanwhile the Roman Beet had taken Sestos, and sailing to Samos shut up the king's fleet at Ephesus — Reduction of towns in Caria — Failure at Patara — Great defeat of the king's fleet in the bay of Teos — In October 190 the consul Scipio crosses the Hellespont, and in November conquers the king at MAGNESIA, who is forced to evacuate Asia Minor — Settlement of Asia and victories over Pisidians and Gauls by Cn. Manlius Vulso (189-188) — End of the Aetolian war and capture of Ambracia by M. Fulvius Nobilior (189-188) ........ Page 464