History of the Greek revolution

Front matter

fisfe HHS

BBS

■SMJ

Chap. II. Grecian Islands, 20

Chap. III. Account of Greece, from 167 B. C. to 1300 A. C. - 25 Chap. IV. From the foundation of the Turkish Empire to the

death of Tamerlane, 33

Chap. V. From the Accession of Mahomet I. in 1416, to the

taking of Constantinople by the Turks, 40

Chap. VI. From the Establishment of the Turkish power at

Constantinople, to the death of Selim in 1520, - 50 Chap. VII. From the Reign of Solyman I. to the taking of Cyprus, in 16.1*, - 58

Chap. VIII. Account of the War between Russia and Turkey,

in which the Greeks join the former, 72

Chap. IX. History of the Tyrant of Ioannina from 757 to 1809, 86 Chap. X. Continuation of the History of Ali Bey, from 1809 to

1822, 116

Chap. XI. History of the Hetaria, from i814, to the arrest and

confinement of Ipsilanti, in 1821, .... 142 Chap. XII. From the beginning of the Revolution in Greece

proper, to the reduction of the Lalliots, - 152

Chap. XIII. From the time when Demetrius Ipsilanti assumes

the command in Greece, to his resignation in 1821, 170 Chap. XIV. Siege of Tripolizza, and the taking of the place by

the Greeks, 179

Chap. XV. Continuation of the War from the taking of Tripolizza.. to the sitting of/the Congress at Epidaurus, - 193 Chap. XVI. Account of the Congress of Epidaurus, and of the

destruction of Scio, 210

Chap. XVII. Account of the Campaign oi 1822, - - - 231 Chap. XVIII. Continuation of the Campaign of 1822, - - 248 Chap. XIX. The Assembling of the Congress at Astros, and

account of the Campaign of 823. .... 264 Chap. XX. Campaign of 1824. — L-iss of lpsara, and end of the

Civil Discords, - 296

Chap. XXI. Campaign of 1825. — Taking the Island of Sphac-

Chap. XXII. Commerce of Greece, and her Productions. —

Fire Ships, Navy, &c 352

^Jhap. XXIII. Campaign of 1826 — The taking of Missolonghi. —

Arrival of Lord Cochrane and (i en. Church, - - 375 Chap. XXIV. Lord Cochrane takes command of the Hellas —

Account of the Campaign of 1827 — Battle of Nava-

Chap XXV. Conduct of the European states in respect to

Greece, 439

CfcAr. XXVI. Population, revenue and resources of Greece, * m 449

Appendix

Last Days of Lord Byron, - - • 465

Funeral Oration on Lord Byron, •.-..- 483

Philanthropic Society, .-....'••"'. 488

Bfciaration of Independence, .--••- 499

Declaration to the Christian powers, ••,„*- 501

GREEK REVOLUTION.

CHAP. I.

Geographical Situation and Population of Greece^

There is some difficulty in prescribing the exact bounda-; ries of the country properly called Greece. Formerly it included Macedonia, Peloponnesus, the Ionian Islands, Crete, and a part of what is now called Albania. D'Anville seems to have included under the title of Greece Proper, only the territory lying between Macedonia on the north, the Gulf of Corinth on the south, the Ionian sea on the west, and the Archipelago on the east. Within these boundaries are included Thessaly and Epirus on the north, together with all the territory now known under the names of Eastern and Western Hellas, extending south as far as the Gulf of Lepanto, formerly called the Gulf of Corinth, and including Athens and Negropont, the latter formerly known by the name of Eubcea. The territory south of the Gulf of Lepanto, consisting of the provinces of Laconia, Messenia, Argolis, Achaia, Elis, and Arcadia, composed the Peloponnesus. In modern Maps, and in the books of modern travellers, this territory is known under the general name of Morea.

The present divisions of Greece, adopted by the provisional government, are the following :

EASTERN HELLAS,

WESTERN HELLAS,

MOREA,

EPIRUS,

THESSALY,

MACEDONIA,

CRETE, AND THE ISLANDS.

Epirus and Thessaly may, however, be considered as coming within the boundaries of Hellas, the former being situated at the southern extremity of Albania, and bounded on the west by the sea coast and the straights of Corcyra, or Corfu, while Thessaly is situated between Macedonia and Eastern Hellas, being bounded on the east by the jEgean

Sea and Gulf of Salonica. What proportion of Macedonia is considered as coming within the boundaries of Greece, we have no means of deciding. A line due east and west from the northern extremity of the Thermaic Gulf, (Gulf of Salonica) to the mouth of the river Viosa, (the ancient Aous) would include, according to the recent maps, a considerable portion of that territory, while according to Anacharsis, Macedonia Proper is still entirely north of such a line.

A recent authority* includes Greece between lat. 36° 15 and 40° N. and long. 20° 10' and 24° 5' E. being bounded on the north by Albania Proper and Macedonia, on the east by the iEgean Sea ; on the west by the Ionian Isles ; and on the south by the Mediterranean. These boundaries 'exclude the whole of Crete, or Candia, as well as Scio, Ipsara, and many other Islands where the language of Greece is spoken, and which have long been, and still are, considered as Grecian Islands. Crete, according to the authority already cited, is embraced in the jurisdiction of the provincial government of Greece. The line of latitude ought therefore to be extended to 35° south, instead of 36° 15', so as to include that Island. The western boundary being placed at 20° of longitude, includes a part of Corfu, and all the other Ionian Isles, which at present are not Grecian Islands, and excludes a portion of Epirus which properly belongs to Greece, while the eastern line being drawn at 24° 5' of longitude, includes a considerable population not recognized by the government of Greece, and excludes many Islands over which the government exercise jurisdiction. From all these considerations, the difficulty of fixing any precise boundaries to those territories and Islands belonging to Greece will be obvious, and hence also the difficulty of estimating with any degree of certainty her population.

If we estimate the population of Greece before the commencement of the revolution, and include within her limits Crete on the south, Thessaly and Epirus in the north, her Eastern boundary being the Ionian Sea, and her Western, the jEgean Sea, with the Islands over which the government claim jurisdiction, we shall find the number of inhabitants to be less than two millions.

* Modern Traveller.

M. Beaujour concludes the total population of Greece to be 1,920,000, including Macedonia. The population of Macedonia he' estimates at 700,000. This leaves 1,220,000, which he distributes as follows :

THESSALY, 300,000

.ETOLIA, PHOCIS, AND BCEOTIA, 200,000

1,220,000

This estimate is evidently defective, as it includes none of the islands. The estimate for the Morea is also probably much too low. Mr. Waddington estimates the population of the islands at 259,000. The Eastern and Western Hellas he assigns 150,000 ; and to the Morea 500,000. Eastern and Western Hellas include iEtolia, Phocis, and Bceotia, which M. Beaujour estimates at 200,000. This is 50,000 more than the estimate of Mr. Waddington. In respect to the population of the Isles, Crete alone formerly contained nearly 300,000 inhabitants, of which not quite one half were Greeks. In this estimate we intend to include the actual population of the territories named, whether Greeks, Turks, Albanians, or Jews.

Mr. Hobhouse estimates that the population of Upper Albania may be one million two hundred thousand, of all ages and sexes.* He says, however, that Upper Albania is more populous than the country to the south of it Lower Albania, which we include as belonging to Greece, under the name Epirus, cannot therefore be estimated so high.

" Of the exact population of Greece," says Mr. Emerson,! " no accurate statement has ever, I believe, been made. It has been estimated at different times, from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000, but whether this be correct, or whether it does not include the supposed Greek population in the Crimea, Palestine, Russia, and other parts of Europe, I cannot tell."

The reader will remark that the diversity of opinions on the population of Greece, by different writers, is sufficient to show the difficulty of coming near the truth on this subject. We will venture, however, to throw together the fol-

* Hobhouse's Tour, vol. 1 p. 154. f Emerson's Journal, p. 216* lowing estimates, as coming from as authentic sources, we believe, as exist on this subject :

EASTERN & WESTERN HELLAS, . 200,000

CRETE & THE ISLANDS, . . 350,000

THESSALY, 300,000

1,700,000

Of this population, perhaps one third or a little more are Greeks, the other two thirds being Turks, Albanians, Franks, and Jews. The following estimate is given on the authority of P. J. Green, Esq. for many years Consul at Patras.

STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE PELOPONNESUS, IN 1823,

Showing the number of its Districts, Villages, Population, and amount of Tithes farmed to individuals by the Government, compiled from the most authentic information.

Districts.

Mistra ...

Monembasia San Pietro . .

Argos ...

Napoli di Romania Kato Achaia Corinth .

Kalavrita Vostizza .

Patras Gastouni .

Pyrgos .

Fanari Caritena .

Tripolizza Londari .

CuZuc Maina

Villages and Hamlets, including the Capital of each District in possession of the Greeks.

180 56 35 38 31 8

152 34 88

122 10 36

Greek Population.

48,000

11,000

14,000

16,000

17,000

4,000

31,000

33,000

6,000

14,000

32,000

7,000

7,500

32,000

30,000

8,000

2,600

Tithes in Turkish Piastres.

300,000

70,000

70,000

40,000

90,000

50,000

300,000

200,000

80,000

130,000

500,000

75,000

72,000

190,000

100,000

70,000

35,000

GREEK REVOLUTION.

Coron .

Modon .

Navarin .

42 10 25 3 56 38 25 105 96

Maina .

2,764,300

Fortresses in possession of the Turks.

Patras ....

Morea Castle . .

Modon ....

Coron . . . .

407,000

Turkish Population.

16,500

The different names by which the places or divisions in Greece have been known, are often perplexing to the reader of her modern history. This is in part owing to the change of masters to which Greece has been subjected, and |n part to the arbitrary selection of names by the different travellers who have visited that country. The ancient Greek names of places appear in many instances to be entirely unknown to the present inhabitants, or if known, as likely to be applied to a different place as to that to which it originally belonged. The more modern names are partly Venetian and partly Turkish. The different divisions of the country have also, in many instances, made it difficult to fix boundaries to any degree of certainty, the more modern division sometimes including some unknown parts of the ancient ones. Under the Turkish Government, the whole of Greece was divided into four great pachaliks, the names of which were derived from the several seats of government. These were Tripolizza, Egripo, (the present Negropont,) Yanina, (Ioannina,) and Salonica. The pachalik of Tripolizza comprised all the Morea ; that of Egripo, the whole of Negro* pont, and a part of Phocis, and the whole of Boeotia ; that of Yanina included Epirus ; and that of Salonica, the southern division of Macedonia.* The following tabular view will show the ancient and modern corresponding subdivisions. We take it from the Modern Traveller, Part XXVII. Part 1. of Greece, p. 26

Ancient Divisions.

Achaia, N.

Argolis, N. E.

Arcadia, Cent.

Laconia, S. E.

Messina, S. W.

Elis, N. W.

The Morea, or Peloponnesus.

Venetian. Turkish. Chief Places.

Chiarenza. ~) f Corinth. Patras.

Pacha- 1 Napoli di Romania.

lik of J Tripolizza. Arcadia. { Zaccunia, J>Tripo- •{ Minstra.

Sacania.

Zaccunia, or Maina.

Belvedere.

lizza.

Navarino. Modon.

Kalamata. ^Pyrgos.

Eastern Hellas.

Attica.

Modern.

Bceotia.

Euboea.

Pachalik

Locris.

> of

(Opuntii)

> Livadia.

Egripo. <

Phocis.

Doris.

i

Locris.

> Pachalik of

(Ozola.) -

S n oannina. \

'Athens. Marathon.

Livadia. Thebes.

Egripo.

Therm opylee. Talanta.

Delphi, Suru

Gavria.

Salona.

Western Hellas.

) Part of Pa- ( Missolonghi. Le

Acarnania.f • i T k l a ..

1 ' ) Ioannma. 1 Jictium.

Epirus. — Jllbania.%

Thesprotia. Tzamouria.

Molossia. Ioannina. > Ioannina.

Chaonia. Liapuria. )

Thessaly. Sanijak of Triccala.

Macedonia. Pachalik of Salonica.

C Arta. Parga.

< Ioannina,. Dodona.

( Chimara. Ericho.

Triccala. Larissa.

Salonica.

* See Thornton's Turke f Acarnania belc in Western Hellas.

rkey toEt vol. 11. p. 10. pirus, in ancient geography, but is included

\ Albania comprises part of Macedonia, Illyria, Chaonia, and Epii Delvinachi is the frontier village of Epirus and Albania Proper.

Greece is bounded on all sides by the sea, except on the north, where it is bounded by Macedonia and Upper Albania. Thessaly and Epirus are its most northern provinces. The latter is surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains. On the north is the celebrated Olympus; (Eta is on the south; Ossa on the east, and Pindus on the west. These mountains enclose a pleasant fertile valley. The Pindus extends to the north and south (under different names) through the whole extent of ancient Greece, terminating south, at the Corinthian Gulf, (Gulf of Lepanto.) It thus divides Epirus from Thessaly, and Etolia from Phocis and Bceotia ; or, separates what are now termed Eastern, from Western Hellas. The branches of this mountain at about latitude 39° separate, and run east and west quite across the continent. The branch running east, (the (Eta) terminates at theMalaic Gulf, forming the celebrated pass of Thermopylae. That running west, called the Makrinoro, divides Acarnania on the south, from Epirus on the north, and terminates at the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Arta, (the ancient Ambraeia.) Ancient Greece is thus divided into four unequal quarters, by high and often inaccessible mountains.

The Boeotian plains terminate to the north-west in the valley of Phocis and Doris, watered by the Cephissus and its branches, which have their origin in mount (Eta. This valley separates the mountains that rise from the Gulf of Corinth, and which anciently bore the names of Helicon, Corax, Parnassus, &c. from the mountains of Locris, the ancient Callidromus and Cnemis, which are a prolongation of Mount (Eta, and the northern face of which looks down on the valley of the Spercheius and the Malaic Gulf. These two ranges are united in the region of the ancient Doris : and from their junction, the central chain of Pindus continues in a N. or N. N. E. direction, gradually inclining towards the coast of the Adriatic, and giving off collateral branches which intersect Albania. For about a hundred miles, this elevated range is nearly equi-distant from the eastern and western coasts.

In Western Greece, a series of plains and valleys lie between Mount Pindus and the irregular range which borders the entire extent of the western and southern coast. At some distance from the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Arta, (the ancient Ambracia,) which divides Epirus from Acarnania, rises a steep, woody mountain, now called Makrinoro

(or Makronoros, the long Mountain,) which constitutes a pass of great strength and importance, corresponding to that of Thermopylae at the eastern end of the (Etean range, and completing the barrier between Eastern and Western Greece. To the north of this ridge rises the vast and apparently insulated mass called Tzumerka ;* and still loftier mountains, rising to the N. E. and N. of this, divide the valley of the Aracthus or river of Arta, from that of the Aspropotamo (the ancient Achelous.) These mountains are commonly known under the name of Agrafa : as seen from the elevated plain of Ioannina, they appear to fill up, in the distance, the interval between the Tzumerka and the narrow and lofty ridge called Metzoukel, which separates the plain of Ioannina from the deep valley of the Aracthus. Immediately beyond the river commences the ascent of a lofty group, the successive ridges of which conduct the eye to summits, supposed to be not less than 7000 feet above the level of the sea. These mountains, which now bear the name of the Greater Metzovo, are apparently the very nucleus of the chain of Pindus. The town of Metzovo is situated near one of the sources of the river Arta, in the bosom of these Alpine regions, and forms one of the most interesting geographical points in the country. From this part of the chain of Pindus, four considerable rivers take their rise, each pursuing its course to the sea in a different direction. These are, the Aracthus, which flows in a south-westerly direction into the Gulf of Arta ; the Achelous, which rises at no great distance, and takes a southerly course through a mountainous district, entering the Ionian Sea near Missolonghi ; the Peneus (or Salympria,) which, rising on the eastern side of that part of Pindus immediately above Metzovo, descends into the great plains of Thessaly, and pursues its course to the Archipelago through the precipitous defiles of Tempe; and lastly, the Yiosa (Vioussa,) or Aous, which has its origin in the mountains to the north of Metzovo, and flowing in a N. E. direction to Tepeleni, enters the Adriatic near the site of the ancient Appolonia.

One of the principal routes over Pindus, in proceeding from the western coast, lies through the canton of Zagora, in which one of the branches of the river Arta has its source, forming its junction with the Metzovo branch in the

* Supposed by Dr. Holland to be the ancient Tomarus.

deep hollow between Metzoukel and Pindus. The Zagora mountains are distinguished from most other parts of the Pindus chain by their summits spreading out into wide and open plains, instead of forming narrow ridges. Beyond Metzovo, in the same direction, is the ridge of Mavronoros, or the Black Mountain ; and still further northward are the mountains of Tzebel and Samarina, which are believed to be among the most elevated points in Albania. The chain continues to run northwards, dividing Illyricum from Macedonia till it unites with the mountains that enclose the bason of the Danube.

The upper ridge of Pindus, near Metzovo, appears to be composed entirely of serpentine. The exposed surface of the rock is every where covered with a yellowish green steatite, generally disposed in a sort of scales upon the serpentine, which is probably superposed upon primitive slate. — The ridge intervening between the plains of Ioannina and the valley of the Aracthus, exhibits a series of layers of calcareous slate, apparently of recent formation, interrupted at intervals by rocks of limestone, which come down in abrupt cliffs to the channel of the stream. This limestone probably forms the basis of all the country westward of the river of Arta, and is the material also of the lower part of the Pindus chain on the eastern side. The bed of the river, however, and the channels of the streams which join it from the east, contain fragments of syenite, porphyry, and serpentine, and sometimes mica-slate, jasper, and conglomerate rock, indicating that the more central parts of Pindus are composed in part of primitive formations. In the valley of the Salympria, there is a most remarkable group of insulated rocks composed entirely of a conglomerate, consisting of granite,

t gneiss, mica-slate, chlorite-slate, syenite, greinstone, and quartz pebbles. The origin of this formation, which is of a

: very limited extent, presents an interesting problem to the

| geologist. Limestone, however, is the prevailing rock, for the most part cavernous, and with abrupt and precipitous faces. The whole chain of (Eta, in particular, appears to belong to the great calcareous formation of Greece. The general appearance of the limestone strikingly corresponds

| to that in the north of Ireland ; its colour, in general, is nearly milk white: it contains a great quantity of flint, either

I in layers or in nodules ; and large deposits of gypsum have taken place upon it, particularly near the coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian seas. The Scironian rocks on the southern coast of the Isthmus consist of breccia, lying as in Attica, and over all the northern part of the Morea, on a stratum of limestone. In Thessaly, the limestone gives way to the serpentine breccia called verde antico ; and that curious aggregate of dark diallage and white feldspar, called by Italian lapidaries bianco e nero antico, is found in Macedonia. Other varieties of porphyry occur also in Thrace, particularly one of hornblende, resembling lava, in the great plain of Chouagilarkir, near the foot of the Karowlan mountains, a branch of the ancient Rhodope. But in Hellas Proper, with the exception above mentioned, to which may be added the breccia formation around Mycenae, and the substratum of the rock of the Acropolis at Athens, the mountains so uniformly consist of limestone, that scarcely any other substance can be met with.*

The most fertile districts of Greece are Macedonia, Thessaly, and the eastern parts of Phocis and Boeotia.f The agricultural produce of Attica, owing to the lightness of the soil, is confined to barley and ojives. The Morea is said to be susceptible of every species of cultivation.^ The moun-

* These geological observations are taken chiefly from Dr. Holland's Travels in the Ionian Isles, &c. and Doctor Clark's Travels, part ii.

f " Marathon, forgotten in every other respect, is now only regarded, as it was before its glory, for being the granary of the barren Attica Pindus and (Eta, with their various branches, are impracticable to the Albanian husbandman ; though in the little winding valleys that intersect them, we may be secure of always finding a village with its surrounding fields of maize or cotton." — Douglas, p. 51.

\ The corn of the Morea has long been highly prized in the adjoining islands, and its culture is proportionably extensive. Its barley, however, is not so much esteemed, and its Indian corn has never been exported. The peninsula is by no means a country for wine, the greater portion of its consumption being imported from the Archipelago. Two species, however, are admired by the Greeks ; the wine ofMistra, and that of St. George in Corinth. Both are only of a light body, and acquire a disagreeable flavour from the turpentine with which they are purified. The grapes are neither large nor of fine flavour ; the best are produced at Gastouni. One species, however, the raisin de Corinthe, (Zante currant,) has been extensively cultivated of late along the shores of the Gulfs of Lepanto and Salamis, where it has taken the place of tobacco plantations. Other fruits are likewise produced in abundance ; — lemons, not large nor peculiarly fine ; oranges, the best are found at Cafamata, peaches, pomegranates, apricots, almonds, and a variety of

GREEK REVOLUTION. U

tainous region of Epirus is the most barren. Thessaly yields wool and silk ; and the soil of Macedonia is particularly favourable to tobacco : that of Yenige, on account of its balsamic odour, is preferred even to that of Latakia in Syria. Cotton also is extensively cultivated. But the principal wealth of Macedonia anciently consisted of its mines. The most celebrated were those of the mountain of Pangaeus, from which Philip annually derived a thousand talents of gold ; and by means of the treasure thence extracted, he became the master of Greece. In the plain of Arta, one of the most fertile districts of Epirus, maize, wheat, rice, and tobacco, are cultivated ; the vineyards are numerous, and the orange tree and fig-tree are made objects of peculiar attention. The oak, the plane, and the chesnut, are the chief ornaments of the vallies; and the vast precipices of the Pindus chain are clothed with forests of pines. The forests of the Morea are in some districts very extensive, especially in Elis and on the western coasts, which have long furnished oak and pine for the construction of the Hydriot vessels, and large quantities of vallonia for exportation to Zante and Malta.

The Morea, notwithstanding its susceptibility of cultivation, and its growth of forest trees, is still an exceedingly rough and mountainous country. Mr. Humphreys, who visited it in 1825, states, that with the exception of a few miles along the coast, it consists of hills piled one above the other ; and that in passing through Elis, Arcadia, and Argolis, he did not

shell fruit. The figs, especially those of Maina, are remarkable for their sweetness. The markets of Napoli di Romania are plentifully supplied with cucumbers, love-apples, spinach, asparagus, and other vegetables. Olives abound in every district, but especially in Maina and Argolis. Manna and indigo were formerly cultivated, but are now neglected, as well as the gathering of galls, which used to be found in every forest. Cotton was never grown in large quantities, but its quality was remarkably white and delicate. The culture of flax was but little known. The immense flocks of Argolis, Messenia, and the valleys of Arcadia, furnish a proportionate quantity of wool, the exportation of which to the Ionian Islands, together with the sheep themselves, and a little wine, constitutes the only remnant of the once extensive trade of Pyrgos." Large quantities of wax are still exported from Napoli to Syra. The barren and mountainous districts abound with beds of thyme, fennel, and mint ; but the honey of the Morea is decidedly inferior to that of Attica, and must be used with caution on account of its medicinal properties. — Emerson's Journalin " Picture of Greece in 1825," p. 314—318.

meet with a level valley of more than a mile in circumference, with a single exception of the little mountain plain in which Tripolizza is situated.

The zoology of Greece, as far as known, does not appear to furnish many distinct species. The lynx, the wild cat, the wild boar, the wild goat, the stag, the roe-buck, the badger, and the squirrel, inhabit the steeper rocks of Parnassus, and the thick pine forests above Callidia. The bear is also sometimes found here. The rugged mountains about Marathon are frequented by wolves, foxes, and jackals ; weasels are sometimes taken in the villages and out-houses ; hares* are too numerous to be particularised. The mole burrows in the rich ground of Livadia, (Bceotia) and the hedge-hog is found in the environs of Athens. The otter inhabits the rivers and marshes of Bceotia, and the phoca and the porpoise are seen in the Corinthtian Gulf, and off the coast of Attica. The small species of bat flutters about the ruins of Athens, and a larger species inhabit the caverns of the island ofDidascalo.

The large vulture frequents the cliffs of Delphi, and the woods and precipices of Parnassus. There are several species of the falcon tribe. Dr. Sibthorp particularises what he supposed to be the falco chrysaetos (called by the guide aetos,) the falco ieraz, and the falco kirkenasi. The latter, " half domestic, arrives early in the Spring with the storks in immense numbers, joint inhabitant with them of the houses and temples of the Athenians, and retires with these birds at the end of August." He noticed also a large grey hawk, of the buzzard kind, on the plain of Marathon ; another species, brown, with a white band on the wings, near Livadia : and a small dark hawk near Cape Sunium. The little owl (strix passerina,) is the most common species of Miverva's bird in Greece ; it abounds in the neighbourhood of Athens. The horned owl is sometimes, but rarely, seen. The ash-coloured, the red-headed, and the small grey butcher-bird, frequent the olive-grounds. Of the crow tribe, the raven, the hooded-crow, the jackdaw, the magpie, the jay, the ulcedo ispida, and the Cornish chough, are found here. The latter generally confines itself to the mountainous parts, inhabiting the

* Taooshan, hare, is a nick-name given by the Turks of the Greek islanders.

oroken cliffs and caverns of Parnassus, but sometimes descends into the plains. The hooded crow, which retires from England during the summer, is a constant inhabitant of Attica. The roller frequents the gardens and olive-grounds. The cuckoo is heard early in the spring. The merops, attracted by the bees of Hymettus, appears at the latter end of summer. The hoopoe is also here a bird of passage. The sitta was seen on the rocks near Delphi. Wild pigeons abound in the rocks ; and the turtle and wood-pigeon are found in the woods and thickets. The red-legged partridge abounds every where. Among the larks, the crested lark is the most frequent ; but there are some of the other species. " Black-birds frequent the olive-grounds of Pendeli ; the solitary sparrow inhabits the cliffs of Delphi ; and the songthrush is heard in the pine woods of Parnassus. Above these, where the heights are covered with snow, is seen the cmbcriza nivalis, inhabitant alike of the frozen Spitzbergen and the Grecian Alps. The bunting, the yellow-hammer, and a species of emberiza nearly related to it, haunt the low bushes in the neighbourhood of corn-fields." The goldfinch and the linnet rank also among the Attic choristers; and the fringilla flaveola is not unfrequent about Athens. Of the slender-billed birds, the wheatear is the most general species throughout Greece, inhabiting alike the highest mountains and the lowest plains. The white water-wagtail haunts the banks of rivulets, and the red-start is found on the eastern coast. The king-fisher is also seen here. Various species of the duck tribe visit the salt lakes and the shores of Attica during the winter, retiring in summer to more unfrequented fresh-water lakes and deep morasses. Woodcocks, snipes, and bustards, in considerable numbers, visit the neighbourhood of Athens during winter. The curlew and the redshank, the purple and the grey heron, the long-legged, the gray, and the sand plover, also frequent the marshes of Bceotia and the eastern coast. The privileged stork generally arrives at Athens some time in March, and leaves it when the young are able to support a long flight, about the middle of August. The quail is another annual visiter. All the European species of the swallow tribe are found here, except the pratincola; also, various species of motacilla, confounded under the general name of bcccqfica. The sandmartin burrows in the cliffs of Delphi, and the goat-sucker trill retains its ancient name, and the stigma attached to it.