Researches, philosophical and antiquarian, concerning the aboriginal history of America

Front matter

RESEARCHES ,

PHILOSOPHICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN,

CONCERNING THE

Preface

As the author of the following pages is conscious that this essay falls short of being complete in its exhibition of the subject he has undertaken to investigate^ he feels unwilling that the deficiences or imperfections of the work should be attributed to any want of exertion on his part. It is therefore hoped that he may be permitted, without the appearance of egotism., to say a few words upon the nature of his labour in the composition of the present volume.

Before the author had completed his studies in the profession for which he was originally intended, he had employed himself with an attempt to understand the manner by which America had been supplied with men and animals. At that time, though his views hardly extended beyond explaining the mere physical difficulties that belong to the investigation, they were deemed sufficiently interesting by the late Dr. Rush of Philadelphia, and some other friends, to be laid before the public. That essay, which a few persons may have read, has been almost entirely forgotten. Very soon after its publication, the author received a subordinate appointment in the Custom House, where he has been employed ever since.

VI

PREFACE.

The necessary attention required to comprehend the duties of his new employment, as well as the laborious execution of its details, for many years entirely diverted him from any philosophical pursuit; but about seven years since, he began to devote the partial leisure of the day, once more, to an investigation of the ancient history of America, which, among a variety of cares, interruptions and employments, has been gradually brought into the system now presented to the reader.

His first object, as in the former essay, was to explain the origin of the men and animals of America, so far as that question is involved with the apparent physical impediments that have so long kept the subject in total obscurity. But as it was soon perceived that the history of America was but a part of the general history of man and nature, it became absolutely necessary, that every part of this vast subject should be examined and compared with whatever was interesting in the physical and moral history of this continent. The author, therefore, entirely changed his original plan, and commenced the study of the general subject, with the hope of being able by successive researches, to place the history of aboriginal America in its true bearing with that of the eastern continent. It was naturally concluded, that with a correct exhibition of the subject, the origin of both men and animals would be almost conclusively ascertained.

The difficulties with which the author has had to contend in procuring suitable books, can hardly be appreciated but by those who have attempted a similar investigation in the United States. The public

PREFACE.

Vll library of Baltimore, although an excellent collection of books for general readers, was very deficient in those useful to his research; he was therefore obliged, as far as his own means allowed, to procure them from England and France, when an opportunity occurred to make the purchase; for as the earlier writers on America have been long out of print, it is but seldom they can be obtained. Indeed it has been impossible to procure the Spanish writers in their own language, and this will explain the reason why they are sometimes quoted according to a French translation.

A great number of other books on ancient history, geography, mythology, &c. which he desired to examine, have been also unattainable to any means he could exert. In consequence, much quotation at second hand has taken place, and to his regret often in a partial and defective manner, according to the purposes of the writers who quoted from original sources. He has been scrupulously exact in citing authorities in such instances, lest there should be other matters not furnished in the extract, which might render him liable to the imputation of garbling quotations to suit his own views.

But in admitting the deficiency of his materials, in several respects important to a full view of the subject of his present investigation, the author hopes, nevertheless, that he shall not be considered presumptuous in publishing the following work, and it is chiefly to justify this step, that these prefatory remarks have been made. Though he has not read all that has been written directly upon the Indians of America, or upon other subjects connected with the research, yet these different matters have been so far investiviii

PREFACE.

gated 5 that the author believes himself possessed of all the important facts necessary to form a good general opinion upon the whole subject. He cannot presume, that the relations of those writers unexamined by him out of a collection of others upon the very same subject, will be found to contain matters invalidating the statements of those consulted, and w T hose writings agreeing together in a general view, leave no room to suspect a discrepancy with those which he has not seen.

He ventures then to illustrate the position he has assumed, by that of a mathematician who commences to examine an unknown and rugged country, where many prominent objects strike the eye from a distance. Like him, the author has measured a base line, and ascertained the angular bearings of the more interesting points. But though the leading features have been thus ascertained, a series of smaller triangles must yet be established before the survey can be considered complete.

The author's literary obligations to individuals, though few in number, are nevertheless too great to be overlooked. To the Honourable Mr. Du Ponceau of Philadelphia, he owes thanks for friendly notice and an instructive correspondence on the Indian languages. To Professor Raffinesque, also of Philadelphia, he is indebted for an acquaintance with some valuable books and communications of great interest. The literary generosity of this gentleman must be appreciated by the fact, that he has at this very time, nearly ready for the press, an extensive work upon the aboriginal history of America.

Introduction

Though it is now above three hundred years since philosophers began to speculate upon the condition and history of aboriginal America, we may still without any presumption^ state that the subject remains involved nearly in all the obscurity that originally pertained to the investigation.

So different are the men and animals of America, and so insulated is their position when contrasted with all other parts of the globe, that it has hitherto seemed impossible, either to explain the anomalies that exist, or to ascertain any material facts that connect the history of the two continents together. That this statement does no injustice to the labours of preceding writers on the origin of the Indians of America, is very evident; for the editors of Encyclopedias and such other works, who have taken a view of the whole range of theory and dissertation as exhibited in the researches of original writers, universally acknowledge their inability to come to any positive conclusion.

When we consider how much has been written upon this subject, it might almost be supposed, that the original history of America is involved in such circumstances of obscurity and perplexity, as to leave little room to anticipate a solution of those difficulties that have hitherto opposed insuperable obstacles to philosophical scrutiny. Yet, if we advert to the great ignorance that has prevailed concerning the history of aboriginal America, it ought to occasion no surprise that mere theoretic writers on the origin of the American Indians, have failed to solve a difficult problem which they cannot be said to have fairly comprehended themselves.

INTRODUCTION.

As we cannot perceive any advantage to the reader in the introduction of exploded or insufficient theories, we forbear to enumerate them; they do not impart any correct information concerning the aborigines of America, and they have entirely failed to shew either their origin, or the manner by which they reached this continent.

But notwithstanding the failure of theoretic writers upon this subject, we have not been discouraged to attempt the investigation upon philosophical principles. It certainly must be within the influence of some solution, whether it be to prove a connexion with other nations or people of the eastern continent, or whether it be that America stands alone and unconnected with the history of all other parts of the earth.

It is to discover the truth alone that we have undertaken this research: and the course to be pursued, seems naturally that we first ascertain, what was the condition of America prior to the discovery of Columbus. After having correct views upon this subject, we can then examine the difficulties, whether moral or physical, that are involved in the origin or in the location of man and the animals. By such methods of investigation we may obtain results, which are capable of being generalized into conclusions both consistent and satisfactory.

According to such views the following pages have been written, and we shall now commence our research with the subject naturally requiring our first consideration; namely, the physical characters of the men of America.

RESEARCHES,

PHILOSOPHICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN*

ON

AMERICA.

Chapter I

ON THE COMPLEXION AND PHYSICAL APPEARANCE OF THE ABORI- GINAL NATIONS OF AMERICA.

We propose in this chapter to lay before the reader, some account of the physical characters of the Aborigines of America, such as they appeared to the first discoverers of the continent; not only in their really natural conformation, but also in those peculiarities of appearance, which, from perverted ideas of beauty, they either inflicted on their bodies, or forced them to assume, while the system was in a growing state, and susceptible of such vicious impressions.

Whatever may be peculiar in the appearance of the American Indians, we cannot refer it to any osteological difference between them, and any other variety of the human family, neither as respects the formation of the cranium, nor physiognomical construction of the countenance; and it is a matter of surprise that physiological naturalists, notwithstanding the avowed uncertainty of their osteological classification, should continue to make use of so imperfect a system. The numerous anomalies noted by them in the form of the scull, alone is sufficient to set their classification aside; for they most distinctly admit, that all their varieties of national formation are found in each of the different races they enumerate, and to such an extent, that they can only say at last, in justification of their theoretic views, that these variations do not occur so often, as to destroy the general characteristic of the particular conformation. But 3 their numerous exceptions make the system so vague and undefined, that we are constrained to ahandon it, as a system of natural classification.

It must be acknowledged, nevertheless, that there is a certain physiognomic character of feature, that enables us, at first sight, to distinguish other nations from ourselves, and often from other foreigners, and few it is presumed who have not made this observation, without even thinking of scientific classification. But after some attention to this matter, we rather think that the method by which we recognize foreigners, is not so much from any difference in features, as from the general air and carriage of the body, the dress, and moral expression of the countenance. Thus it is, a well bred man can be discovered even in the most insignificant action of common life. The habitual politeness of the French gentleman, shews itself remarkably among a society of Englishmen, where they are not polished by service in the army, or attendance at court; and we would recognize the sober dignified Spaniard from a Frenchman, by the observation of a few moments. The Hollander, or German, may be grave and serious, but they want the manner and dignified courtesy which belong to the Castillian. A moderate acquaintance with different nations, will soon teach us their characteristic air and manner, when free and unrestrained in their intercourse. But I very much doubt, if individuals of these different nations were seated together, without speaking or moving, whether the most practised eye could distinguish in them, any thing peculiar or different from ourselves.

In the physiognomic engravings of different nations, given in physiological works, which seem to strike the eye with the appearance of great differences, it is really the head dress and clothing, that enables us to recognize the nations whom they are intended to represent. Thus, the turbaned head shews the Turk; the head adorned with feathers, an American, &c. But if the coiffure be changed or taken away from each, though there may be different moral expressions of countenance, none would perceive any national peculiarity. This circumstance continually deceives the traveller among foreign nations, who happens to be unaware of the effect of costume.

The peculiar expression of countenance said to belong to the American race, as far as we have been able to ascertain it, is referrible to those moral causes, which operate every where in producing physiognomic expression. Where the

OP THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

mind is cultivated, or where intellect and the passions have scope, where courtesy, humanity, or enthusiasm prevails, the varied emotions of the soul occasion a mobility of feature, which continually reflects more or less of what is passing in the inmost recesses of the heart; and this circumstance gives the intellectual physiognomy so apparent in civilized nations. But where the mind is hardly ever exercised, except in the means of circumventing inferior animals, and where nothing intellectual is perhaps ever excited, the features assume a fixed, grave, and even stern expression, according to the peculiar temper and feeling of the individual, who perhaps expresses no passions of the mind, except it may be grave complacency when animal wants are satisfied, or rage, when offended. Such we consider the general character of the Indian countenance, not differing from that of any other people who may be brought up under similar circumstances. The African, equally ignorant and barbarous, is generally more cheerful, because he is more of an agriculturist. His wants are more easily supplied, and the satisfaction he feels he has more opportunity of displaying. But cceleris paribus, I think it will be found as stated above, that barbarity of manners induces the same expression of countenance.

Systematic writers have also considered the native tribes of America, as a fifth class of the human species, under the distinct term of the "Copper Coloured Race." To this term we have much to object, not only as respects the Americans, but other nations, from whom it seems to us, they have been improperly separated by this theoretic distinction. In order to have a correct understanding of this subject, we should be told what is the copper colour, for that metal has several very different hues. Any person who inspects a large quantity of copper coin before it has been much handled, may perceive eight or ten shades of colour, not only rising to an ashen yellow, but also deepening to a darkish blue. That some of these varied tints, may to a certain degree resemble the general complexion of the American Indians, I am not disposed to deny altogether; but if the colour of copper, as usually seen in sheets or other manufactures, is assumed as the tint, it is at variance with all the observations we have been able to make. The word applied to the human complexion is ill chosen, for the mind always associates with it the idea of metallic lustre, which the skin is incapable of assuming. Even cinnamon colour is objectionable, unless a more than commonly pale soeci men of that article is furnished. This I assert from some personal observation among the Chippeways, Pottawottomes, &c; and that other American Indians are not characteristically of this copper colour, may be reasonably inferred, not only from the descriptions given by more recent travellers, but also from finding the same term, copper colour, applied to natives of the South sea, and certain of the Asiatic and African tribes.

The term, I believe, was first employed, to describe the complexion of the American Indians; and it is presumable was given by superficial observers, who were deceived by the faded marks of red paint, so universally used among them, and which is hardly ever so much worn off, as not to leave a reddish tinge on their brown faces. But the hands, legs, &c. do not exhibit this complexion. However the term has now become so current, that all navigators and travellers use it specifically, and by this means we shall be enabled to establish our point, perhaps not directly, that the Americans are not copper coloured, but we shall be able to shew that so many other nations are described of the same complexion, that it must cease to be considered the distinction of the American race. By this circumstance we shall be able to unite the American Indians, again to those, from whom they have been inconsiderately separated by this fanciful distinction. To this end we adduce the following authorities, which will shew that the term "copper coloured" has been applied very widely to other nations than the Americans.

Hainan Islanders on the coast of China, i( copper colour" (Grosier in Winterbotham's Hist, of China, i. 127.)

Inhabitants of Disappointment Islands, "deep copper colour." (Hawksworth's Voy. i. 114.)

Malays of Timor, "deep copper colour." (Cartaret in Hawksworth, i. 445. Peron and Le Suer, i. 144.)

Nicobar Islanders, "copper colour." (Asiat. Research, iii. 151.)

Nassau or Poggy Islanders, '"'of a light brown, or copper colour, like the Malays." (Asiat. Research, vi. 83.)

Magindinao Mahometans, "deep copper colour." (Mears' Voyage, i. 65.)

Guam natives, "copper coloured like other Indians." (Dampier, i. 297.)

Bashee Islanders, "dark copper colour." (Dampier, i. 427.)

Free "Wills Islands, natives, "Indian copper colour." (Cartaret in Hawksworth, i. 445.)

OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

Lagoon Islands, natives, "copper colour." (Cartaret in Hawksworth, ii. 80.)

Friendly Islands, natives, "copper colour." (Cook's Voyage to South Pole, i. 217.)

Toubouai, "stout copper coloured people." (Cook's Voyage to North Pole, ii. 6.

Gambier's Islands, natives, "light copper colour." (Mission. Voyage, 115, 117.)

Duff's Group, "copper colour." Mission. Voyage, 291.)

Tucker's Island, one of the Caroline Islands, "dark copper." (Mission. Voyage, 291.)

Lord Howe's Group, "dark copper." (Hunter's Voyage, 222.)

Duke of York's Islands, "light copper." (Hunter's Voyage, 233.)

Tench's Group, "light copper colour." (Lieut. King in Hunter, 42.)

New Hollanders, some black, others "copper or Malay colour." (Collin's New South Wales, 359.)

Washington Islands, "copper colour, and some fairer." Com. Porter's Journal, ii. 14, 62.

Laplanders, "copper coloured." (Clark's Travels in Scandinavia, ix. 486, 506, 508, 540.)

Recent discoveries have made us acquainted with nations distinguished by the term copper coloured, extending into central Africa as far at least as Lake Tchad. These people of various tribes are distinguished by Denham and Clapperton, as being copper coloured, clear copper colour, deep copper, dingy copper, &c. See Denham's Journal, 30, 56, 88, 131, 134, 136, 162, and Clapperton 58, &c.

Malte Brun, Geog. book 69, designates the Sognies bordering on the Zaire, as "copper coloured."

Thus has this vague term been extended by navigators and travellers over a great part of the earth; and if it be considered at all accurate in one case, it must be so in others; and its universality will effectually prevent our considering the American Indians, as being thus distinguished from other brown men. The preceding quotations from Dampier, Byron, Mears, and Commodore Porter, who were accustomed to the sight of American Indians, shew the evident resemblance in complexion, between them and the natives of the Indian and Pacific oceans, be the colour what it may; and their general resemblance to brown men, of other parts of the world, may be directly inferred, from Volney's and Humboldt's observations on this particular subject. The former remarks, [View of the U. States, 364,) "At Vincennes, (on the Wabash) and at Detroit, I met with Indians that reminded me of the Bedouins and Egyptian Fellahs; in the hue of their skin, quality of hair, and in many other circumstances they were alike." Humboldt says, (Polit. Essay, i. 115,) 4 'the analogy between the Mongol and American races, is particularly evident in the colour of the skin and hair, in the defective beard, high cheek bones, and in the direction of the eyes. We cannot refuse to admit, that the human species does not contain races resembling one another more than the Malays, Mongols, Mantcheaux, and Americans."*

The few Malays, or Maccassars, that I have seen, bear so general a resemblance to-our northern Indians, that it is not easy to say in what respects they differ. At most, it cannot be more than in a pallor of complexion, which naturally ensues from a residence in tropical climates, and which can be easily appreciated by any one, who has an opportunity of contrasting the complexion of Europeans or Anglo Americans when thus exposed, with those of the same race who inhabit dry and healthy situations of the temperate zone. Mr. Marsden appears to have suggested the reason of any difference of complexion between the Malays and the American Indians, when he observes, that the Rejangs who con^ stitute a considerable portion of the natives of Sumatra, "have a complexion properly yellow, wanting that red tinge, that constitutes a tawny or copper colour. 7 ' (Hist. Sumatra, 40.) I infer from this, that were the Rejangs to live in a more cool and temperate region, they would acquire this reddish tinge, or, in fact, healthy complexion of which it is indicative, and which would then constitute them a copper coloured people in the ordinary use of this word.

We consider, therefore, that the colour of the American Indians in general is a brown; differing in intensity with various tribes, according to various localities; but that it is almost impossible to say what that brown colour principally resembles. The cinnamon, is in our apprehension, the nearest approach to it; though still too inaccurate for gene-

* The Baron, it is true, says, "these features of *esemblance do not constitute an identity of race." We are not concerned with any theory, that one may see proper to establish upon these facts; but it is strikingly apparent that the very slight if not fanciful shades of difference, between the American and Mongol races, which the Baron goes on to enumerate, do not separate the two in any equal degree, with what the analogies which he has enumerated tend to unite them; and which are those of skin, hair, eyes, and osteological character of face.

OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

ral comparison. Under these circumstances, it seems most correct, simply to use the general term, brown men; who will thus constitute an intermediate class, between the white and negro races. These three complexions being distinctly admitted, all other modifications of complexion can be accounted for by their intermixtures, where the variation of colour is too great to be referred to climate, local situation, and state of civilization; which it may be presumed do exercise a partial influence on the skin.

There is undoubtedly a great similarity in the appearance of the Indians of America to each other, except in a few remarkable instances to be noticed in their proper place: yet there are also various shades of difference among them, shewing the impossibility of reducing them all under one general class of complexion. Though their colour is commonly assumed to be that of copper, we find travellers constantly remarking the variations of hue among different tribes, as for instance:

The Indians near the sources of Peace river, are of a swarthy yellow complexion. {Mackenzie's Voyage, 195.)

The Cherokees are of a lighter colour than adjacent Indians. {Barton's New Views, p. xlv.)

The Mandans and Gros-ventres have a light complexion, and hair inclining to chestnut. { Topog. Description of Ohio, 152.)

"The complexion of the Quapaws, like that of the Choctaws and Creeks, is dark, and destitute of any thing like the cupreous tinge." {Nutall's Travels, 83.)

The Mexican complexion, according to Clavigero, is olive, {History of Mexico, i. 104.)

Herrera v. 11, says, "the women of the Chiachiapoyos of Peru, were so much whiter and more graceful than other Indians, that they were sought after by the Incas."

Baron Humboldt remarks, "if the uniform tint of the skin be more coppery and redder toward the north, it is, on the contrary, among the Chaymas, of a deep brown, inclining to tawny. The denomination of copper coloured men, {rouges cuivres) could never have originated in equinoctial America to designate the natives." {Personal Narrative, iii. 223.)

• Gumilla, {Description of the Orinoco, i. 107,) says, "the colour of the Indians on the borders of the Orinoco, is so diversified, that he could say nothing of it under one general head."

The Guaycurus of Brazil, "are of a darker tint than copper.' 7 {Southey-s Hist, of Brazil, iii. 671.)

"The Charruas are more black than white, without any mixture of red.' 3 (Jizara Voyages, ii. 8.)

"The Guayanas, (a different people from the Guaranis) of Brazil and Paraguay, differ from all the Indians of those nations, by the lightness of their colour, and some of them have blue eyes." (Azara Voyages, ii. 76.)

Hitherto, we have confined our discourse to that portion of the American Indians, who may be strictly termed brown men; and we presume that in a general manner, we have established the fact, that there is a great variety of shades of complexion existing among them, the reason of which we shall not attempt to explain, even were the solution less difficult than we apprehend to be the case. We shall now proceed to describe other nations of America, of a very different complexion, which being a matter not generally known, we feel a necessity of establishing by many proofs; and therefore may seem to overcharge our page with more extracts and quotations, than is agreeable to those who prefer the smoothness of an uninterrupted discourse. But the points we have to establish, are derived from the narratives of various travellers, who do not commonly express the same ideas with equal precision; and sometimes indeed differ with each other. To ascertain the fact, therefore, it is necessary, that their various relations should be laid before us, that we may exercise a sound discrimination in forming our opinion.

It has been long known that the Esquimaux, were in comparison with other Americans, of a white complexion; and this circumstance so far misled Dr. Robertson, that he conjectured they were the descendants of the Norwegians, who discovered Greenland in the year A. D. 982, and made some insignificant settlements there. It would be unnecessary to disprove this opinion, for the Norwegians themselves describe the Esquimaux already there before them, under the name of Skroelingues* or dwarfish people; but we will attempt to shew what the complexion of the Esquimaux is, from the accounts of different travellers.

The Greenlanders are described by Egede, of a dark tawny complexion, though some are pretty fair.

Ellis {page 139,) says, their colour inclines to the European white, rather than to the copper colour of the Americans.

Dobbs (Account of Hudson' \s Bay, 50,) states, they have a white complexion, not copper coloured.

^Pennant's Arct, Zool- Introduction i. 64. See also Edinburgh Review, for June, IS 18, 37.

OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

Kalm (7 ravels, ii. 263,) relates, the Esquimaux are almost as white as Europeans.

Capt. Lyon, (Journal, 224,) observes, the Esquimaux complexion previously washed, "is not darker than that of a Portuguese; and such parts of the body as are constantly covered, do not fall short in fairness, to the generality of the natives of the Mediterranean. "

Capt. Parry (3d Voyage, 493,) says, "the complexion of young persons among them is clear and transparent, scarcely a shade darker than a deep brunette."

From the above accounts, the character of the Esquimaux as a white nation seems to be clearly established; and we proceed to shew that certain other people of America, are even more distinctly entitled to that appellation. These are chiefly the natives of Prince William and Nootka sounds, who have been visited by several navigators, whose descriptions we shall now transcribe. Capt. Dixon, ( Voyage, 171,) who was at Port Mulgrave has given the most explicit statement of this fact. He observes, "the natives are particularly fond of painting their faces with a variety of colours, so that it is no easy matter to discover their real complexion; however, we prevailed on a woman, by persuasion and a trifling present to wash her face and hands, and the alteration it made in her appearance absolutely surprised us; her countenance had all the cheerful glow of an English milk maid, and the healthy red which flushed her cheek, was even beautifully contrasted by the whiteness of her neck; her forehead was so remarkably clear, that the translucent veins were seen meandering even in their minutest branches; in short, she was what would be reckoned handsome in England." The English translator of La Peyrouse's Voyage, seems to think this account of Dixon's, not confirmed by the observations of that navigator, but there does not appear to me any reason for such an opinion. This last voyager speaks of these Indians as they appeared to him, covered with dirt, paint, and fish oil; and Capt. Dixon describes the natural complexion when cleansed and washed. The French editor, however, confirms the account of the latter by the relation of Don Maurelle, who says, "several of the women among them, if better dressed, might dispute charms with the most beautiful Spanish women."

La Peyrouse himself, (Voyage, iii. 144,) though he says the colour of the natives at Port des Francais is very brown, owing to* continual exposure to the air, yet adds, "but their children at the time of birth arc as white as ours." 4

Now, as the opinion that Indians and negroes are born white, and change colour afterwards has been deservedly exploded, we may rest satisfied that those who are born white, will continue of that complexion.