The up-to-date hardwood finisher

Part One

GIVING RULES AND METHODS FOR WORKING HARDWOODS, WITH DESCRIP- TION OF TOOLS REQUIRED, THE METHODS OF USING, AND HOW TO SHARPEN AND CARE FOR THEM, INCLUDING SAWS, PLANES, FILES, SCRAPERS, CHISELS, GOUGES AND OTHER WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO CHOOSE HARDWOODS FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES, AND HOW TO WORK AND PROPERLY MANAGE VENEERS. THE PROPER USE OF GLUE, DIRECTIONS FOR PRE- PARING GLUE, BLIND OR SECRET NAILING, HOW DONE AND HOW FINISHED. HOW TO SHARPEN AND USE SCRAPERS OF VARIOUS FORMS, WITH ILLUS- TRATIONS SHOWING TOOLS AND HOW TO HANDLE THEM PROPERLY, ETC.

Part Two

TREATS ON THE FILLING, STAINING, VARNISHING, POLISHING, GILDING, ENAMELING AND FINISHING ALL KINDS OF WOODWORK. IT ALSO TREATS ON RENOVATING OLD WORK, RE-POLISHING, RE-VARNISHING AND WOOD FINISHING GENERALLY. THERE IS A SHORT TREATISE ON DYEING WOODS IN VARIOUS COLORS FOR INLAYING AND MARQUETRY WORK, WITH RULES FOR MAKING STAINING, DYES, FILLERS, AND POLISHES OF VARIOUS KINDS, FRENCH POLISHING, HARD-OIL FINISH, RUBBED AND FLAT FINISH, TREAT- MENT OF HARDWOOD FLOORS, WAXING, POLISHING, SHELLACKING AND GENERAL FINISHING OF HARDWOOD IN ALL CONDITIONS.

By FRED T. HODGSON, Architect

Member of Ontario Association of Architects, Editor of ''National Builder^'' and author of the ''Modern Estimator and Contractors'' Guide,'" "Modern Carpentry,''^ "Architectural Drawings Self-Taught,'''' etc.

CHICAGO

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS

UBf>«V '«f 0ON6RF3S

COPYRIGHT. 1904 BY FREDERICK J. DRAKE & COMPANY CHICAGO, U. S. A.

A

Preface

Some twelve or fourteen years ago, I prepared a little manual on "Hardwood Finishing," which became quite popular, and to some extent remains so up to the present writing. The little work, however, was far from complete, and I have been asked by a large number of woodworkers to extend the limits of the work, or to reorganize and add more to the subject oi wood preparation.

After considering the matter, I was impressed by the latter suggestion, as the title "Hardwood Finisher" seemed to be somewhat misleading, as the intention of the book was to give general instructions in finishing woods of all kinds — hard and soft — and not only making them ready for the varnisher and polisher, but also to instruct the workman in the latter process as well as the former. I have therefore embodied in this new work a number of directions for making and finishing the raw wood, making it ready for the finisher or varnisher and polisher; and have also given directions and formulas for mixing the materials and applying them to the prepared wood.

It goes without saying, that to make a work of this kind useful, it must contain much that has been published before, and much that is taken from the workshop and from the experience of workmen, many of whom have given me their own methods of working. I am also indebted to a number of current journals, such as "Carpentry and Building," "The National Builder," "Scientific American," "The

6 PREFACE

Carpenter," "The Woodworker/' "The English Mechanic," "The Painter's Gazette," and several others, to whom I offer thanks for such matter as I have made use of.

While the present work may not be as complete as it might be, I have some reason to think it very much superior to any work of the kind now in the market, as it covers more ground, and deals with the subject of wood-finishing in a more extended and complete manner than any other work devoted to the subject that I know of. Mowever, be this as it may, every effort has been made to obtain the best and latest information on the subject and to put it in such a form that the regular every-day workman may understand what is intended to be conveyed. If I have failed to make everything clear to the reader it is because of the lack of ability on my part, not because of desire to do so.

Fred T. Hodgson.

Collingwood, Ont., Canada.

Oct. 1st, 1904.

The Up-to-Date Hardwood Finisher

Part One Introductory

Wood is, and always has been, one of the most important and useful materials that Dame Nature has vouchsafed to bless humanity with, and the latter's necessities and ingenuity have made the best of the circumstances.

It need hardly be said that Nature seemed to have well understood the wants of her children and provided for them in a most liberal manner, for it is said that nearly one-third of the earth's surface is covered by trees; all of which are, in some form or another, contributory to the wants and pleasures of man.

The introduction of machinery for the rapid working of nearly all kinds of intricate mouldings and shapes of woodwork has, in a great measure, had a tendency to elevate the taste of the whole community, though I must confess that artistic excellence of a high order, in the mechanical arts, is now scarcely found among our younger workmen, machinery having almost done away with the necessity for the fine kinds of hand and brain work. Fashion, which rules despotically in the wardrobe, influences, to a greater or lesser degree, the style and finish of woodwork and, to a certain extent, the kind of wood that must be used for certain purposes. Thirty or forty years ago no other wood than clean white pine would be permitted to do service in a building. All woodwork had to be pine; floors, doors, windows, even to the bath fittings. Then Dame Fashion sent forth her decree and a mixture of white and Southern pine was used, followed shortly afterward by the abominable mixture of ash, walnut and chestnut. Some architect, who deserves well of his country, introduced all walnut and all mahogany fitments; and at once people of taste who saw this manner of finish noticed its superiority over the medley; and the fashion then of finishing in one kind of wood became the rage. Walnut was found too dark for general purposes and was soon abandoned for the lighter woods; chestnut, sycamore, ash, cherry, birch and oak were then tried, but I believe I voice the opinion of a majority of architects when I say that, with the exception of oak, the light-colored woods were not successful, from an aesthetic point of view, and it is on record that many buildings finished in these woods have since had their woodwork cleaned and stained to imitate darker woods or have been painted. One of the valuable qualities of white oak is, that it grows richer in color as it gets older, and no matter how it is finished, so long as the grain is visible, it mellows and improves with age. This is a quality that no other of our American woods possesses in the same degree. All the oaks have this quality to a certain extent, but the white oak {Quercus alba) possesses it more than any other. Mahogany, too, has this quality largely, if true Spanish mahogany is used, but little of this is in the market; though there are many woods that have the appearance of mahogany, and are called mahogany, such as cherry and black birch, and both buyer and

HARDWOOD FINISHER g

user are oftentimes deceived, and pay for what they do not get.

Americans have often been reproached with willfully or ignorantly ignoring or destroying their own handsome woods, while importing from abroad at excessive cost, and the payment of heavy duties, foreign woods which are much inferior to many of native growth. This folly prevailed at a time when it was fashionable and even popular to believe there was no merit in domestic productions of any sort. This state of things, however, is now at an end, and in the neighborhood of all large towns, and in country places as well, a finish in hardwood is the rule, and a finish in pine the exception, if the building to be finished makes any pretension of being "up to the times."

With regard to the difference in cost between a finish in the best clear pine, and the best selected hardwood, there is really but little, if any, if we take into consideration durability and good taste. As between pine wood and good, well finished hardwood, the disparity in value and merit is so very little as to completely silence any comparison. Between poor pine and poor hardwood the preference should be by all means given to the former; because poor pine as it reveals its defects can be puttied and painted in a manner to disguise them; whereas the defects of poor hardwood are almost incurable. The rationale of the subject seems to resolve itself into the following statement:

Modern taste in expensive dwellings calls for the free use of hardwoods. It is immaterial which are used, but highly essential that the best seasoned woods should be selected; and, further, that they should be skillfullv treated and finished.

10 THE UP-TO-DATK

The principal recommendation of hardwood is that it achiiits of a treatment which renders it impervious to the effects of atmospheric changes and, therefore, can be made more durable and ultimatel}' less expensive than pine wood. A hardwood that is well seasoned before use, that is treated with proper fillers to close up its pores, and then finished with successive coats of suitable varnish, well rubbed in with pumice-stone, being finally brought to a higher flat finish, presents the most attractive, serviceable and reliable style of woodwork than can be introduced into a house. Well finished hardwood obviates the expense and annoyance of constant renewals, which pine work calls for in patching, puttying and painting. The most brilliant gloss of finished hardwood can be restored by a skilled person without disturbing the furniture or carpets of a house.

Pine work seems peculiarly and incomparably adapted for cheap work. A good article of common pine, suitable for ordinary work, can be procured and worked at considerably less expense than would be involved in using good hardwood. The use of poor hardwood in any work should not be tolerated or thought of under any circumstances, for the simple reason that it is certain to create annoyance and expense, which no house-owner, especially of moderate priced property, should be subjected to.

Pine, however, is not the only soft wood that may be used in house finishing, but it is the most popular, because the most plentiful and doubtless the most satisfactory to deal with. Basswood, poplar, elm, whitewood, spruce and hemlock all make fairly good finishing woods when properly selected and properly treated; but, with the exception of elm, perhaps, all

HARDWOOD FINISHER ii

of them require to be either painted or stained before a good finish can be obtained. Elm, black ash and chestnut have all coarse grain, and are unsuited for tasteful work, though all right for ordinary fitments; and indeed may be used for kitchen or bathroom finish in fairly good houses. Later on I will deal with each one of them, and some other of our native woods at length.

The present methods of hardwood finishing are comparatively new, so far as the manner of operation and materials are concerned; as I can find nothing dating farther back than 1850 in the vast amount of literature at my command that treats in any way intelligently on the subject; true, there are methods of varnishing, lacquering and French polishing given; also treatment on finishing in wax, notably a small pamphlet containing a treatise on "The Shining Up of Woodwork," dating as far back as 1809, and published in London. This little treatise is the first to make mention of a wood-filler being employed. The author says that "the pores of the wood ought to be sealed up with a mixture made of ground chalk or rotten stone coloured like the wood, and mixed with glue water. Cover the work to be shined up with the mixture, then wipe off and when hard and dry, smooth off fineh^ with shark-skin and hair-clothe." He then goes on to show how to finish in wax or with shellac, as the case may be. He says nothing of French polishing, but gives directions for varnishing and rubbing down with rotten stone.

To-day there are quite a number of works published on wood-finishing, which shows how much interest is taken in the subject.

The introduction of the modern methods of polishing

12 THK LP-TO-DATK

finished woodwork has 'so reduced the cost of fine furniture and elaborately finished woodwork, that now the poor man may ha\e in his house one or more pieces of finely wrought work, as well as the man of wealth. French polishing was a costly operation, and made more costly because of the secrecy surrounding the process. IC.\j)crts were bound not to teach others the process unless they were well paid for it, and the pupil was compelled to take a solemn oath that he would not divulge the secret or convey to others the method, unless he was paid a large sum, often as high as $ioo. French polish when well done is certainly a fine finish, and while still costly, is often employed in finishing high-class furniture and woodwork in costly buildings, but its general use is rapidly falling off; yet no wood-finisher is completely rounded off unless he has thorough knowledge of the best French polishing, and in the present work I purpose giving a thorough description of this method, with illustrations of the appliances made use of in the process.

While it is not my intention to write a treatise on the useful woods of America, I do not think it will be out of place to describe a few of them, showing their manner of growth, their peculiarities, durability, and the uses they can be put to, with directions for working and finishing them.

In every description of wood the elementary composition of the organic tissue is the same, but the latter is found associated with \ery variable organic elements, according to the species of the tree.

Pine trees, for example, contain turpentine, and oak trees tannin. The combustible part of wood is this same organic tissue.

The exterior characteristics of woods are very different from one another. Thus certain wood is soft and tender and of a loose tissue, whilst another is hard and of a compact grain. Thence there is quite a natural division into two classes. The first includes all the soft and tender woods, amongst which may be mentioned the pines, white wood or plane tree, basswood, poplar, etc. The second includes all the heavy and hard wood, such as the oaks, maples, beech, birch, cherry, walnut, etc.

When wood is first cut down as timber, it contains from 40 to 45 per cent of water, but this quantity gradually lessens until it is said to be thoroughly seasoned, when it only contains from 5 to 7 per cent. Moisture, however, is always present in wood, and as it gets older, if exposed to the air, will take in from 10 to 15 per cent. It then becomes very hydrometrical, and loses or absorbs water according to the state of dryness or humidity of the surrounding air.

The density of wood, like that of all porous bodies, can be considered in two different ways, and can be looked for under its apparent volume. The only method which can then be employed consists in forming a block of the wood, the volume of which can be easily measured, and then taking the weight of it. The ratio of this weight to that of the same bulk of water would be the density sought for. This density for the same wood varies according to the degree of seasoning it has had, and to the form and position of the fibers in the sample. A block six inches square cut from a knot, or burl, or a cross-grained part of a tree, would be considerably more dense, and weigh more, than would a block of a similar size cut from the same tree, if it was straight-grained and uniform.

It is the density of the harder woods that makes them popular with wood-finishers. A hard, close- -grained wood re(|uires little or no filler, and offers better opportunities to the polisher than do the woods of lesser densit\'.

The use of nearly all kinds of hardwood in the general finish of good houses, has completely taken the place of using pine or other soft woods in wainscoting, floors, doors and general fitments. The variety of the woods employed in these finishings has greatly increased within the last few years. How so many of these beautiful and suitable woods could have fallen into disuse within the present century is one of the decorative mysteries of this period. Walnut, which was the pioneer of the new departure, still remains in use, where cost is no object, although- its dull color and unpolished surface are dingy and somber. It has had its use, however, in directing attention to the employment of solid woods, though it is now on the retired list. Mahogany is at present in high favor, the variety known as San Domingo mahogany being especially rare and desirable. When new it has a reddish yellow tone, which grows dark and rich with age. The old wood is much in demand for use in interior finishings and for furniture, and the genuine old pieces are highly prized by their possessors. Cherry is popular for common use, though at first falsified by the red stain, which destroyed its natural beauty and gave it no artificial excellence. Unstained cherry has a yellowish brown color, polishes well, and is excellent for interior woodwork, its moderate cost making it available for general use, though now getting very scarce. If any stain is required, it should be in the dark tones resembling mahogany color.

Black birch is one of the most beautiful native woods, having a grain resembling that of mahogany, and taking a fine satin-like polish. Unstained, it has a warm, rich yellow tone, and its darkened finish can hardly be distinguished from the more costly tropical wood. Yellow birch, though less beautiful and costly, is excellent in grain and color and is often used for fine floorings. The different varieties of oak are well adapted to interior uses, the wood being solid and durable, while each year of wear adds a depth and richess of color and a smoothess and polish to its dark surface. It has a beautiful grain, and is a popular wood for interior finishings and the floors of modern houses. After centuries of wear this useful wood is found in the houses of both humble and royal history as black and smooth as ebony. Butternut resembles oak in color, though not in grain, polishes finely and takes a carved decoration well, and ash and elm are often found as deceptive substitutes for oak, especially in its darker or so-called antique stains. Rosewood is one of the most beautiful woods in use, rich and deep in tone and capable of a mirror-like finish. It is costly enough to keep the merit of rarity.

Apple wood carves finely and polishes well, making excellent panels; so also does the wood of the pear tree. Maple is in high favor, bird's-eye maple being one of the choicest of the light-colored woods, and especially suited to dainty and sumptuous uses. Chestnut and ash are serviceable and inexpensive light woods.

As these woods come into more general use, their genuineness and elegance giving to the houses in which they are placed one of the strongest assurances of that permanency which is the best element of the new

Renaissance, they will be more and more enriched with ornament. And here it will be difficult to a\oid the besetting sin of abundant means and inartistic taste, which unfortunately are so often found in company. The honesty of material and the uses which it serves should never be concealed under complex decoration. Most hardwoods are beautiful enough in grain and color to give lasting satisfaction, and for every-day use no decoration beyond a touch of good carving should be applied. Where something more sumptuous is sought, carving and inlaying will make them elegant enough to satisfy the most exacting taste, and when properly varnished or polished no other method of decoration can excel it in beauty or refinement.

I have deemed the foregoing introduction necessary, as it will enable the workman to have some idea of the development of the art of joinery, and the transition from the use of pine and the softer wood to that of the hard wood.

In the following, it is my intention to take each of the woods most in use; describe them, say what I think they are best adapted for, and the best way to finish them, as far as my knowledge extends. By this means the reader will have, under one head, all the book contains concerning the particular wood he is about tu finish

THE BETTER WOODS TO MAKE USE OF

The wood most made use of at the present writing for interior finish, is oak. It is made into doors, sashes, stairs, base, cabinet cases, and wainscot.

The working of oak, particularly in the framing up of panel-work, differs somewhat from ordinary pine or other soft wood panel-work, inasmuch as the latter is generally painted and picked out in two or more colors; thus rendering it imperative to use sound stuff, and to have the work above suspicion. The material is generally so thin that the paneling should be stiffened with stout canvas glued to the back, which is often primed with red-lead paint to afford protection from

I ' I eaBBea^a^oEB^asiBB m

Fig. I

Fia 2 damp when the work is to be placed in a new building. It is usual to frame up the work with stuff varying in thickness from seven-eighths of an inch to one and a quarter inches, finished sizes. In some workshops it is not considered necessary to clean up the back of the work, though I think it always best to dress down the i8

THE UP-TO-DAie joints on the back, and true it up with plane and straight-edge. All joints should be close and perfect, and tenons and mortises should be in the center of the

stuff, and all should be well glued together and left to dry before fixing.

The panel-work shown in Fig.

I is framed with i}( in. stuff, got to thickness and widths as shown in Fig. 2. The center framing is mitered together at the corners, which are further strengthened by the insertion of a cross-tongue joint, while the side rails and top and bottom muntins are tenoned and pinned like all the other tenons in the framing. The moulding stuck on the edges (or in the solid) is not mitered in the same way as for ordinary work (see Figs. 3 and 4); but the mitered corners are worked as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, thus forming butt joints with mason-mitered corners to all moulded edges. These corners are worked on the bench after the paneling is glued up and cleaned off.

The bottom rail is tongued into the skirting as shown in Fig. 8, and the top rail meets the festooned frieze board under the small necking mould as shown, the frieze board being tongued to the dentiled cornice also. This cornice is double-dentiled, one row of dentils being cut farther back than the other, as shown

FiG. 6 in Figs. 7 and 8. As usual with built-up cornices, this section can be worked on the four-cutter moulder or on a spindle machine^ the dentiling, however, being

Fia 7 best cut by hand. A cover-board lies at the back of the cornice, which is back rebated to receive the front edge of the cover-board. The three flutes over the top muntins have rounded-out top ends, and finish at

20 'F«E UP-TO-DATE

the bottom on a splay; whilst the festoons are preferably cut out of the solid, but are generally planted on unless otherwise specified.

In fixing this class of work, which is, as a rule, screwed up, all fixing screws should be hidden, or the holes should be bored to take "corks" a little larger than the screw head, and the "corks" should be cut from wood closely matching that in which the hole is bored. The framing must be fixed as true and upright as possible (especially at external corners where mitered vertical joints occur), and be well scraped and cleaned down after the fixing is done.

The illustrations are reproduced to the following scales: Figs, i and 2 are three-eighths of an inch to the foot; Figs. 3 to 6, half full size; Figs. 7 and 8, one and a half inches to the foot.

While it is not the intention to enter into the subject of joinery in this work, it will not be out of place to make a few remarks on the manner of doing some odd jobs of work that are not generally discussed in books of this kind, or if discussed, are not done so with a view of showing how the wood should be prepared for the polisher. The examples given in the foregoing are only offered as an illustration of how similar work should be prepared when made from solid wood. Where the work is composed of material "built up" or veneered, the manner of preparing it for the finisher may be very different, but this I will discuss later on.

Suppose a column, or a pillar or spindle is required having a spiral form; unless the workman is well acquainted with the method of laying out spirals, he will be up against a proposition which he will find difficult to solve. To meet a condition of this kind, I

-<1^ show the following method of setting out such work. This example is intended to be prepared for the lathe, but, of course, it may be executed without the aid of a lathe, but in such case much patience and skill will be required.

The sketch Fig. 9 shows the method of setting out the twist or spiral. First turn the wood round; then divide the circumference into four with lines, as shown, marked all the way down. Then, having decided on the size of your twist — and the same details apply to any size and depth — mark the cross-lines, and then the diagonals, which you can easily do with a twist of the leg in the lathe, and both sides as shown by dotted lines. The gouge, held in this direction, will follow the required twist. It is supposed the operator is acquainted with lathe work to some extent, and is aware of the methods and appliances made use of in turning spirals, a^id the sketch is only intended to instruct him in the manner of laying out the spiral. This will be found useful even in work where the column, etc., is not turned in a lathe, but is wrought by hand.

Handwork of almost every kind in woodwork is rapidly going out of fashion — more the pity — but now and again, men are found who insist on having their work done by hand, and it is well that every joiner should know how to go about the work with intelligence when such work is required. With this idea in view, I give herewith a few instructions and illustrations to help the

Fio. 9»

workman when he is confronted with problems such as I have indicated.

Often dovetailing — an almost lost art — has to be done by hand on some particular job or piece of work, and, in order to prepare the workman for this purpose, I offer the following- instructions, and give the accompanying illustration, which I think will materially aid him in his efforts.

Dovetailing to a great many young workmen proves a pitfall, yet, when the method of laying out the work is once understood, it all seems easy enough. A dovetail joint, if made properly, requires no screws or nails, to hold it together or to bring the parts down to a proper joint; but in order to attain perfection there are one or two points which must be attended to when making this kind of joint. First, the stuff must be faced up properly, using the tr}^ing plane, on the flat surface. In passing, I will just mention that in dovetailing, whether boxes, drawers, or whatever is being made, the face side is always the ifiside^ and the face edge is the bottom edge.

Another point which is often neglected is to put in plenty of "pins" or dovetails. A very good rule for ordinary work in soft wood is to space them not less than i}^in., or more than 2^in., from center to center; for hard wood, or for small work in thin wood, they should be spaced closer still.

In setting out the pins, or rather the mortises in which the pins have to fit, a half dovetail should be placed at both top and bottom, as shown in ¥\g. lo, and the intermediate "tails" should be brought to an extreme point as shown at B in the drawings — that is, if neatness is an object; but if this has to give way to

Fig. 10 strength, then "tails" of the shape shown in Fig. 11, should be used.

The bevels of the "tails" should be as shown in the drawings, and in no case should they be shaped as at M, Fig. 14. If made like that, there would be great danger of the sides splitting off at E, and although this shape at first sight would appear to be stronger than the other,' it is really not so in

practice. Also if one, two or three, or even more articles of the same size are being made, the dovetails need not be set out on one piece only. The whole could be placed together in pairs as shown in