China: travels and investigations in the "Middle Kingdom."

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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDI TICK vii

thoroughly educated officers and well-trained men, has moved forward with rapid strides, and seems to be ready at every point for an active aggressive war.

The struggle is an interesting one. It has its origin primarily in the claim of China to suzerainty over Corea, complicated by the further fact that Japan is separated from that country by a strait only about seventy miles wide, across which the Japanese have gone in great numbers for the purpose of trading. The Corean Government and its officials are corrupt and oppressive, and have become more so of late ; the people of the southern provinces have rebelled, and were threatening to march upon the capital. A spirit of lawlessness has spread throughout the country ; many acts of violence have been committed against foreigners, and specially against the Japanese. The King's troops naturally sympathized with the rebels, and this in turn had paralyzed the Government.

At this juncture the Chinese minister, who is really regarded by his government as a Resident at Seoul, succeeded in inducing the King to ask for the assistance of Chinese troops, whereupon several thousand were sent into the country. These were followed by others shortly, and as this was regarded by Japan not only as a violation of the treaty existing between the two countries, but as adding to the outrages already inflicted upon her citizens by the Coreans, she proceeded at once, and without formal notice, with a fleet of twenty-eight transports and war-ships, ten thousand soldiers of all arms, three thousand coolies, and all the necessary materiel of war, to effect a landing upon the coast, and to march to Seoul, the capital, which is now completely under her domination.

viii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

What the relative rights of the combatants, the course of events, and the results of the struggle may be, the future alone can reveal, but it is believed that the facts set forth in the following pages will materially help the reader to form a correct estimate of the condition of the two countries, the habits of their people, and their aptitude and readiness for war.

In view of the fact that the two great rival Asiatic powers, Russia and England, are profoundly interested in the conflict, and that the present Government of China is one of conquest, threatened at all times by rebellion within, it is not impossible that the war now in progress may lead to important and far-reaching changes in the condition of Eastern Asia.

Wilmington, Delaware, August 16, 1894.

PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

Owing to the universal depression in trade for tlie last five years, China has strongly attracted the attention of the whole world, and especially of England, Germany, France, and the United States, as the only great country yet remaining to be provided with railroads. In the spring of 1885 I turned my attention in that direction ; but, when I sought to obtain specific information as to the actual condition of afl^airs in respect to railroads and other modern improvements, and the readiness of the Chinese Government and people for their introduction, I could learn nothing whatever upon which it seemed to be safe to base calculations or draw conclusions. After conferring with a few friends in I^ew York, who had also been impressed with the same general fact, and were looking about to discover new fields for American skill, enterprise, and capital, and who also found themselves utterly unable to get trustworthy information, I resolved for our common benefit to visit the countries beyond the Pacific, and see for myself whether they were ready for railroads, whether, if built, railroads would probably pay, and also whether the construction and management of them could be secured for Americans, under such terms and conditions,

X PREFACE TO TEE FIRST EDITION,

as promised fair returns for the skill and capital employed, and the risk involved.

I saw no other means of satisfactorily solving the questions which presented themselves. The correspondence of our diplomatic and consular agents was silent on those points, or unattainable ; and, even if it had not been, it could not have been expected to contain anything more than the most general statement of facts. Hitherto our diplomatic agents, with a few exceptions, in Oriental countries at least, had imitated the traditionary diplomatic policy of Europe, and ignored such questions, avoiding as far as possible all official notice and discussion of commerce, manufactures, and the mul- 'titude of industries and public undertakings usually carried on by associated capital and labor, and which constitute the chief feature of what we call modern progress. An occasional traveler of a more practical turn of mind, or here and there a still more occasional newspaper correspondent, had called attention to the absence of railroads, collieries, furnaces, and rolling-mills in China, so that the geheral fact became known ; but neither diplomatist, traveler, nor correspondent had yet furnished to the public any information, worthy of the name, bearing on the great question herein alluded to.

Turn which way I might, I could get no adequate account of the real situation in China. I therefore left New York for San Francisco on the 8th of September, 1885, and sailed thence for Yokohama and Shanghai on the 19th of the same month, by the Pacific Mail Company's steamship City of Peking, Captain Berry commanding. I had, of course, provided myself with a letter of credit, and such letters of introduction to diplomatic and consular agents, and to American merchants

PEE FACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xi

residing in the treaty ports, as I could obtain in tlie short time left me after I had made up my mind to go. The voyage to Yokohama lasted twenty-two days, and to Shanghai eight days more.

Without any definite information or prearranged plan, I hoped my travels and investigations woald not require more than five or six months at the outside, and, as winter was approaching, I hurried forward to Tientsin, the port of Peking and of J^orthern China, but specially important as the principal residence of Li Hung- Chang, First Grand Secretary of the Empire, Yiceroy of Chihli (the metropolitan province), and, since the suppression of the Taiping rebellion, one of the most conspicuous and influential men in China. Having been received by him with every mark of distinction, and after several conferences, during which he imparted his views fully and frankly to me, at his personal request I made journies to Taku, Kaiping, Peking, the Great Wall, and finally to the Yellow River and beyond, for the purpose of inspecting its embankments, and also of examining the Grand Canal and the country adjacent to them. During this last-mentioned journey, which was made in midwinter, I traveled over fifteen hundred miles on horseback, through the provinces of Chihli, Honan, and Shantung. I visited Kaifung-fu, the capital of Honan, and Ohinan-fu, the capital of Shantung ; and also Kii-fu, celebrated as the home and burial-place of Confucius. I climbed Taishan, the sacred mountain of China, and passed through many important towns and cities.

On my return to Tientsin I had several interviews with the Yiceroy Li and other high Chinese officials, again visited Peking for two weeks, and, finally, alxii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

most immediately after the ice broke up in the Pei-ho and navigation was resumed, I sailed for Shanghai. From this place I made a trip up the Yang-tse-kiang, during which I visited Chinkiang and JSTanking, and had an interview with Tseng Quo-Chu'an, the venerable and distinguished Viceroy of the Kiang provinces. Eeturning to Shanghai, I sailed for Japan, touching again at !N"agasaki and Simonoseki, and landing at Kobe. From the latter place I went by rail to Osaka and Kioto, where I remained for several days. Resuming my journey, I went by rail to Otsu, at the eastern end of Lake Biwa, crossed by steamer to JSTagahama and took the railroad again thence to Sekigahara. Here I employed jinri- Mshas^"^ or man-power carriages, and continued my travels by the IS^akasendo, or the road of the central mountains to Yokogawa and Sakimoto, where I again took rail for Tokio and Yokohama.

Having spent the whole of May, the loveliest month of the year, in traveling through the most beautiful country in the world, I returned to Shanghai, and at the invitation of Liu Ming-^hu'an, the energetic and capable Governor-General of Formosa, I visited that island and spent a week in traveling over its northern end, examining its rivers and harbors, and studying its resources. While there I received an invitation by telegraph to revisit the Yiceroy Li, and accordingly re-embarked on the Chinese steam-transport Way Lee, Captain Danielsen commanding, for Shanghai, where I transferred to an English steamer for Tientsin. I remained at the last-mentioned place for two weeks, and then set out for home by the way of Shanghai, ISTagasaki, Kobe, Yokohama, and San Francisco. I arrived at N^ew York with-

* Invented by an American missionary.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xiii

out accident or unusual delay ; but, instead of having been gone only six months, as I had hoped, my absence had extended to within three weeks of a year.

Although my travels had carried me over nearly thirty thousand miles by sea and land, and had taken me to many places out of the usual path of travelers, I doubt if they would of themselves justify another book on China and Japan ; but in view of the important personages I met, the information I obtained, and the class of questions which principally engaged my attention, it seems to me that I am warranted in submitting the following pages to the public, and in requesting its indulgent consideration of the same. In this my friends and correspondents at home have expressed their concurrence, and must bear with me the responsibility for any disappointment which they or the public may suffer at my hands.

It is suggested furthermore that, notwithstanding the great number of books on China, there is at this time room for another, which should briefly tell what China and the Chinese were before foreign influences had materially changed them, what foreigners have done for or forced them to do, and what remains for foreigners to do, with the prospect of their doing it. In other words, it should make progress in China its burden and text, and in the narrative which follows I have kept that text constantly in mind, and aimed to give the reader the materials for forming an intelligent opinion in reference to it. If any one wishes to obtain a more comprehensive account of China and the Chinese, within the limits of a single work, he can not possibly do better than to study carefully and diligently the latest edition of the "Middle Kingdom," by S. Wells Willxi\r PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

iams, for many years a leading missionary, and at various times secretary of legation and charge d'affaires for the United States at Peking. These volumes are the adopted standard authority of all foreigners and foreign legations in China, and are an enduring monument to the profound learning and the great application of their author. I have drawn freely upon them, and hereby acknowledge my indebtedness to them.

The history of the Chinese Government and the dynasties which have controlled it is for the greater part an arid waste of intrigue, anarchy, and violence, varied with an almost endless series of internal and external wars. Here and there a great soldier or an honest and capable ruler emerges from the chaos and confusion, and governs the country wisely and well. He may be a Mongolian border-man, like the great Genghis or his son Kublai Khan ; a native Chinaman, like Hung-Wu ; or a Manchu Tartar, like Tienming, the founder of the present dynasty ; but the great rulers of China can be counted on the fingers of one hand, while the essence of their history can be told in a few short chapters. But a full and faithful account of dynasties and rulers, whether good or bad, can be found in Boulger's " China," to which I refer the reader who has the time and inclination to devote to the subject.

There are besides many interesting books of travel, describing with greater or less detail the various parts of the country. At the head of this list stands the story of Marco Polo, edited by Colonel Yule, but candor compels me to say of even this remarkable narrative that the editor's notes are much more interesting and instructive than the text to which they refer. I wish to acknowledge here my indebtedness

PREFACE TO TEE FIRST EDITION'. xv

to both Boulger and Yule, and also to Wilson's " Life of Gordon," and various other works of minor importance bearing upon the history of the Taiping rebellion. I am satislied, however, that no proper account has jet been written of that important period of modern Chinese history, unless it is contained in the forthcoming " Life of Li Hung-Chang," by William E". Pethick, Esq., United States Yice-consul at Tientsin, to whom 1 am especially indebted for information upon every topic connected with China and the Chinese. His long residence in China and his intimate association with Li Hung-Chang, to whom he has also filled the position of secretary for many years, naturally make him an acknowledged authority, at least with Americans, on all Chinese questions. He is, besides, an accomplished scholar of Chinese hterature, and both speaks and writes the language with great facility. I am also indebted to Dr. W. A. P. Martin, President of the Tung- Wen College at Peking, and author of the " Hanlin Papers," for much valuable information.

To Colonel Charles Denby, our able and distinguished minister at Peking, I am specially indebted for introductions and presentations, as well as for information and assistance which could not have been obtained from any other source, and without which my mission would have come to a speedy close. It must be as gratifying to every American citizen, without reference to party, to know that his country has never been more ably or creditably represented in China than it is now, as it is for me to make this statement. Not only the minister and his family, but his secretaries, Mr. W. W. Eockhill, Mr. Charles Denby, Jr., and Mr. F. D. Cheshire, are in every way worthy representatives of the country, and it xvi PREFACE TO TEE FIEST EDITION.

is a source of unalloyed satisfaction to me to be able to speak of them, conscientiously as I do, in terms of unqualified praise and respect.

Finally, I am under many obligations for information and assistance to the American house of Eussell & Co., and its able and enterprising partners and agencies in all the treaty ports as well as in Formosa, and especially to C. Vincent Smith, Esq., the senior partner at Shanghai ; also to E. J. Smithers, Esq., acting consul-general at Shanghai ; to George T. Bromley, Esq., consul at Tientsin ; Richard B. Hubbard, Esq., our minister to Tokio ; to Henry W. Denison and Durham W. Stevens, Esqs., advisers to the Japanese Foreign Office ; and to Thomas and John Walsh, Esqs., of Messrs. "Walsh, Hall & Co., Yokohama.

Note. — The best general map of China is Keith Johnson's, in one or four sheets. That of Baron Kichthofen is best for geology and topography.

OOl^TEIfTS

Chapter I. Page

First visit to Japan — Genuine progress of the Japanese — Inland Sea — Return to Japan — The Nakasendo — Tokio — Received by the Emperor — The palace — The ministers and attendants — The Emperor — Ceremonials — The emancipation of the Emperor from the domination of the Tycoon — Tiffin at Uyeno Park — Dinner-party in Japanese style — Country-place and duck-pond — Gaishas — Wrestlers and wrestling — Saki and health-drinking — Kissing an innovation — Excursions — The progress and civilization of the Japanese genuine — The government and ministry — The governing class — Schools and colleges — Railroads — The prosperity of the people — Art and artisans — The original conservatism of the Japanese — The progressive movement — The Satsuma rebellion — The triumph of the progressive party — Acknowledgment of Japanese autonomy by the American Government — Treaty revision — No field for American railway-builders — Demand for American products — Delightful country for the traveler 1

OHAPTEE II.

Voyage through the Inland Sea — Mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang — The Wusung River — Shanghai — Foreign and Chinese city contrasted — Chinese civilization — Ward and the Taiping rebellion — Li Hung-Chang and Tseng Quo-Fan — Future importance of Shanghai . . . . . . . , . . .19

Chapter III

Area of China — Reached its greatest extent under Kublai Khan — Almost as great under the late Regent — China's isolated position — Approach of railroads toward western border— Communixviii CONTENTS.

cation by steamships — Civilization different from any other — Origin of names of country — Provinces — Climate — Surface — Hwang-ho, or Yellow Kiver — Delta, or Great Plain — Inundations — ^Embankments — Change of river-bed 26

CHAPTER ly.

The Yang-tse-kiang — Its navigation — Its various names — ^Its tributaries — Its floods — Canals and creeks in the delta — Area of its water-shed — The Chukiang or Pearl River — The Min — The Pei-ho and its tributaries — The Peh-tang — The New-Chwang and the Ta-wen-ho 40

CHAPTER y.

The surface of the country — Sinian Mountain system — The highlands and hill country — Origin of the loess terraces — The outlying dependencies — Corea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Hi, Turkistan, and Thibet — The Great Plain or delta — Coal, iron, and other minerals — The Kaiping coal-mines and railroad — The first locomotive built in China — The coal-mines of Formosa and Shansi — Coal transported in wheelbarrows — The development of coal and iron receiving Government attention — Foreign experts required — Conservatism of the Government . . . .48

CfiAPTER yi.

Population of China — No complete census ever taken — The country not overcrowded — Influence of famines, rebellions, pestilence, and floods — Eeproduction normal and active — Population probably greater than ever before — Country capable of supporting three times as many inhabitants — Origin of the Chinese race — v,' Physical characteristics — Compression of feet — Manchus do not practice the custom — Its origin — ^Failure to practice it looked upon as evidence of abject poverty and distress — Food of the Chinese people — ^Domestic animals 63

CHAPTER yil.

The houses of the Chinese — The clothing — The great public works — The walled cities — The only crystallized and accumulated labor of the Chinese — The effect of depopulation — The com-

CONTENTS. xix

PAGS

mon people everywhere poor — No system of popular education — No conception of or vocabulary for science — Diversity of dialects — The classical or literary language of the country — The greater wall of China — Chinese civilization — The characteristics of the race — ^Arrested development — Future progress . 75

CHAPTER VIII.

Voyage from Shanghai to Tientsin — China Merchants' Steam Navigation Company — American house of Russell and Company put the first steamboats on the Yang-tse — Sold them to the China Merchants' Company — Coast of Shan-tung — Chee-foo — Naval station at Port Arthur badly located — The northern fleet — Board of Admiralty — Command of the northern fleet — Need of educated officers — The Taku forts and dock-yard — "Heaven-sent barriers" — Chinese troops drilled by foreign officers in English — Chinese army badly organized, armed, and administered — The Pei-ho — Villages on its banks — Grave-mounds, and burial of the dead — Fung-shuy or geomancy — Difficulty of laying out railroads without removal of graves — How that can be managed . 85

CHAPTEE IX.

Races at Tientsin — Chinese band playing American airs — No social intercourse between Chinese and foreigners — Removal of grave-mounds to make way for the race-course — Political and commercial importance of Tientsin — The foreign settlement — Foreign gunboats — The Viceroy Li Hung-Chang — His American secretary — First call upon the Viceroy — His official residence or Yamen — Subjects discussed — Railroads and canals — Intelligence and interest displayed by the Viceroy — Ceremony of leave-taking — " Setting the watch " 101

CHAPTER X.

Li Hung-Chang — His public career — Influence of Generals Ward and Gordon — English misconception of their character — The career of Burgevine — The influence of the war threatened with Russia — Gordon revisited China — The introduction of telegraphs — Messages sent in English, or cipher — Memorial of Liu Ming-Chu'an on the introduction of railways — Referred to Li

XX CONTENTS.

PAGE

Hung-Chang and Lin K'un-Yi — The memorial of Li Hung- Chang and Lin K'un-Yi — Tso Tsung-Tang's dying memorial on the same subject — No official action yet taken thereupon — The essence of progress and the death-knell of conservatism . .118

CHAPTER XL

Visit to Peking — The unspeakably filthy city of the world — Its origin and characteristics — No suburbs or villas — Streets not paved — The foreign legations and society — Non-intercourse between court and diplomatic corps — The yoimg Emperor — The Empress-Dowager — Her unlimited power — The censors — The Emperor worships at the tomb of his ancestors — The influences which control him — He can hardly become a conservative — The difficulties of his situation — Unprepared for a foreign war . 160

CHAPTER XIL

The Emperor an absolute monarch — The Government patriarchal in form — Liberty unknown — Slavery exists — No hereditary nobility except the imperial clan and heads of the families of Confucius and Koxinga — The literati are the office-holders — The Imperial Government — The Grand Secretariat — The General Council— The " Peking Gazette "—The Six Great Boards— The Tsung-li Yamen — The Censorate or all-examining court — The minor courts and boards — The functions f the great boards — Power greatly divided and distributed — The provincial governments — All officers selected by public examination — Defects of the system — Li Hung-Chang' s position somewhat like that of the British Premier — Foreign ministers not yet received by the Emperor or Empress-Dowager — Much of the foreign business done by provincial governors — The central Government isolated and inaccessible — Difficulty of communicating or transacting business with it 1'79

CHAPTER XIIL

The eyes of the world now turned toward China as a field for investment in public undertakings — Its financial system — Mo statistics except those of the maritime customs — The revenues collected by "farmers" — The growth of the system — The

CONTENTS. xxi

PAGE

sources of the imperial Chinese revenue — The land-tax — The salt monopoly — The likin, or internal transit tax — Miscellaneous taxes — Maritime customs duties — Summary — Comparison of Chinese and British Indian revenues — Estimates made by various persons — No correct account can be given of the expenditures of the Chinese Government — Approximate estimate — The funded debt — Fear of the Chinese Government to negotiate foreign loans — Its obligations good and negotiable for $100,000,000— The Chinese slow to lend to their Government — ^No statistics of private wealth — Thought to be capable of raising $100,000,000, if properly secured — Necessity of measures to promote confidence 200

CHAPTER XIY.

Visit to the Great Wall — Decay of the ancient road through the Nankou Pass — Mongolian caravans — Origin, uses, and description of the wail — The return to Nankou — The ride to the Ming tombs — Description of the inclosures and buildings — The Avenue of Statuary — The return to Peking 215

CHAPTER XV.

The Kai-ping coal-mines and railway — The first locomotive-engine built in China — Extension of the railway to Lutai — The Kaiping coal-measures — Output of the mines 226

CHAPTER XVI.

Trip to the Yellow Kiver — " China's Sorrow " — Organization of the party — The route — The roads — The winter climate — The inns and inn-keepers — The old towns — The Grand Canal and its embankments — The sluices — Impracticability of keeping the canal open by Chinese methods — Necessity for a railway — The Yellow River and its embankments — Worship of the river-god = — Change of channel at Lung-mun-Kou in 1853 — Views of Dr. Williams and Ney Elias — Error of Abbe Hue — Probable cause of change — Embankments can be maintained — The river can be regulated and controlled by the resources of modern engineering — Railways can be built and maintained in the delta . 233 xxii CONTEIfTS.

CHAPTER XYII.

PAGE

Visit to the city of Kai-fung-fu — The immense number of wheelbarrows on the road — The curiosity of the citizens — Difficulty of securing an inn — Inn-yard invaded by the mob — ^Yisit of the officials from the yamen — Mob finally driven out — Respectable merchant compelled to crawl out under the gate — Call of two young officials from the governor's yamen — Tung-ming district — Approach to the Shantung hills — Cross the Grand Canal at Chi-ning-Chou — Visit to Kii-fu, the home and burial-place of Confucius — The "Ever-Sacred Duke" and his descendants — The Grand Pavilion and grounds — The avenue — The Confucian cemetery — The tomb of the sage — Burning of the Confucian residence — Singular superstition in regard to it — Visit to Taishan, the sacred mountain of China — Ascent of the mountain — Beautiful scenery — Temples and shrines — Eeturn to the Grand Canal and journey to Chi-nan-fu — American Presbyterian mission — But few Christian converts — Superiority of technical instruction — Influence of war, commerce, and the missionaries ■ — The city of Chi-nan-fu — The Yellow River again — Navigable from Chinau-fu to the sea — Chinese are ignorant of science in the work of controlling the floods — Journey back to Tientsin — Old embankments — The country — Mission at Pang-Chia-Chwang — Case of first convert — Chinese New- Year — Ancestral worship — New- Year's dinner — L^st in a dust-storm — Dreariness of the Great Plain — Not over-populated — Condition of the people — The Yellow River can be crossed by railroads — Return to Peking — Received by the Tsung-li Yamen .... 256

CHAPTER XVIII.

Visit to Formosa — Description of the island — The inhabitants — The savages — Mountain-ranges — Camphor-wood — Eastern coast — Lack of harbors — Port of Kelung — Tamsui — City of Twatutia — The governor's yamen — Chang-hwa, the future capital — Valleys of the Tamsui — Tea-plantations — Tea-culture — Energetic operations of Governor-General Liu Ming-Ch'uan — Foreigners in Formosa — Mats and opium-smoking — Houses in Formosa-— Prevalent diseases — Domestic animals — Climate — Future value of Formosa 295

CONTENTS. xxiii

CHAPTER XIX,

PAGE

Chinese system of education — Confined to classics, jurisprudence, and history — Influence upon the governing class and common people — The arrest of development — How China is to be prepared for the higher civilization — Substitution of Western sciences for the dry husks of their worn-out philosophy — The earliest communication with the Chinese by the Portuguese — ■ The Spaniards — The French — The Russians — The English— The East India Company — The Americans — The Chinese au= thorities have from the first sought to restrain trade — The period of small ships — The first Protestant missionaries — The attitude of the Chinese ofiicials in reference to trade — The hong-merchants — Lord Napier's refusal to confer with them — Action of the English merchants — The discussion at Peking — The opium-traffic — The Emperor's efforts to suppress it — Captain Elliot — The destruction of the opium — The Opium War — The conclusion of peace — ^the Chinese concessions — The settlement of Hong-Kong — The influence of the war . . . 808

CHAPTER XX.

History of the Taiping rebellion again adverted to — The operation of the treaties — The rapid increase of trade — The establishment of the maritime customs under foreign management — The influence of Canton and the Cantonese — The affair of the Chinese lorcha Arrow — The first and only diflScuIty with Americans — Demands of England, Russia, France, and the United States upon the Peking Government — The Emperor and court greatly alarmed — The practice and doctrine of co-operation — The allied fleets proceed to the Pei-ho — Negotiation — Signature of the treaties — Principal concessions — The affairs of the Taku forts — The British repulse — Return of the allies — Capture of the forts and the advance to Peking — Treaties ratified and exchanged — Death of the Emperor Hien-fung — The regency — The influences surrounding the present Emperor — The necessity for Western education 331

CHAPTER XXI.

The rights of missionaries in China — The Tientsin massacre — The French and Russians indemnified — The influence of the misxxiv CONTENTS.

sionaries generally minimized — Ancestral worship and superstition — The practice of fung-shuy — The conversatism of the governing class — The censors — Chinese statesmen are progressing — The establishment of the Tung-wen College — The Burlingame mission — The Chinese students in America — Their recall — The Emperor all-powerful — Railways wanted by leading statesmen — Difficulties to be overcome — Probable solution of the question — The duty of our own Government — Impossible to predict when China will move — Surrounded by great perils — Russia's menacing position — The British Indian Empire — Their permanent interests — But little danger from Germany and France — The Chinese may perceive their real danger — Not a warlike people — Their true policy — The victories of peace . ...o ..... . 346 h