Science and art of farming. The soil, its origin, composition, exhaustion and improvement

Front matter

Ohap...:..... Copyriglit No.

Slielf„_ID.l.G

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Section I

1st, What this work does not contain — The present work will not contain much mor6 than fifty pages and for that reason all will understand that only a very few facts can be stated. The only reason why an exhaustive work on farming cannot be produced at j^resent is the question of money.

Therefore this work does not contain many questions arising from the science of Botany which has to do with how plants grow. &c.

Although the science of chemistiy will be used the work is not a special effort on agricultural chemistry. Although something will be said about winds and weather, rainfall, &c., the work is not a treatise on meteorology.

The following pages will not contain a special effort to instruct the farmer on how to raise and care for the horse, the cow, the sheep, &c., for such works are numerous and many of them need but 'ittle improvement. Farm fencing, farm buildings, the employment of fiinii hands, &c., together with thousands of ideas which the author has in mind and part in manuscript will not be published in this little work. The work will contain, for the most part, the origin of soil, the chemical composition of soil, how soil is exhausted and how it can be rapidly improved.

Origin and Fornaation of Soils.

Section II

2nd, All soils come originally from rocks. There was a time when the first mountain range lifted its mammoth head above the first primeval ocean.

There was a time when the j'ocks, the flowing lava of the same commenced to be decomposed by the chemical action of the elements of the atmosphere and water. This process continued to work rock into soil unto the present time; and will continue the process, until the end of time. All clay soils, all sandy soils and all gravelly soils came from rock stratums of the earth's crust.

Changes of Temperature.

3rd, All kinds of rocks are made up of crystals which differ from each other as much as the chemical elements in the same differ from each other. The heat from the internal fire and the tendency to ever cool from without furnishes the idea of temperature. Crystals not only contract and expand differently under the same tempei-ature but also under different temperatures. On this subject Prof. Kedzie says: "These crystals would not only expand and contract unequally under the change of the temperature, but each crystal would expand or contract unequally in different directions, so that, in these changes they would tend to split off from each other, and into small fragments."

"Water in the rocks frequently becomes a most powerful force. In fi'eezing water expands fully one fifteenth its bulk, and these forces of expansion are so great that nothing known is strong enough to resist it. Hence along the base of cliffs and mountains, there are always found great piles of rock fragments, split off from the rocks above by the force of frost. In the same manner, this force acts upon the surface of the rock itself crumbling it into dust. If a piece of limestone, for example, be wet with water, and exposed to a hard frost over night, its surface will be found the next morning, upon examination, to be covered with a minute coating of miid^ from the particles split off by the frost. The heaving action of the frost in the winter and spinng still further crumbles the rock fragments of the soil."

Moving Water.

4th, "Water in motion is one of the most powerful forces known in converting rocks into soils. By the heat of the sun's rays, water from the ocean, from the smaller bodies of water, and from the earth itself, is converted into an invisible vapor, which rises into the upper regions of the air, where it floats and becomes visible as clouds. These upper regions are much cooler than the lower air, and, hence, these clouds are constantly depositing their moisture in the form of rain and snow. Mountains by their effect on the currents of the air, act as condencers of vapor, and the water gathers rapidly upon them into rills and rivulets, these uniting form mountain torrents, until finally wo have the great rivers flowing back to the seas.

Through its whole course, this moving water exerts an immense wearing power upon the rock bed boncuth. At every point small particles of solid rock are worn away, the littl(> rills cutting their way almost imperceptibly, while the mountain torrents rush down with great power, tearing away great rocks in their coui\se. Every particle thus removed and those which fall into the current from the rocks above add to the wearing power of the water.

The delta of the Mississippi covers over 12,000 square miles, and the amount of silt yearly carried down by this river would make a bed of soil one mile square and 2U8 feet deep. By the continual wearing away of the rocky uplands, and their conversion into fine earth, the continent is becomuig slowly lowered in height, and its spreadout material is extending into the sea. . But the wearing action of water does not cease when it has reached the ocean. The ocean's waves, currents and tides are ever wearing away the rocks along the coast. This, of course, tends to straighten coast lines, by wearing away the headlands, and filling up the bays and inlets. Great oceanic currents, like the Gulf stream, doubtless accomplish much of this wearing action, although thoir effects can not be easily seen or understood."

We might speak at length of moving ice. and the many glacial periods: but space forbids.

Weathering Aotion of Water and Air.

5th, ""Air in Motion.'' — The air itself, by its mere force of motion and its cari-ying power, is a gi'eat agent in the reduction of rocks to soil.

6th, Solution. — We have already studied the conversion of rocks into soil by the mechanical effects of water; that is the action of water in main. But water produces other eft'tvts of equal importance by its power of soinfion. Even pure water will dissolve many of the elements in small quantities; and its solvent power is greatly increased when I'ocks are reduced to powder, as the amount of exposed surface is then much larger. But j>»re water is something unknown in nature. Water always contains other matters in solution by which its action upon the rocks is greatly increased. The most important of these matters contained in all natural waters is Carhonic Acid; it is obtained either fi'om the air or from the decaying organic matter in the soil.

Water will ordinarily absorb an amount of Carbonic acid equal to its own bulk; but under low temperatures and under great pressure, it will take up much more. Water when charged with Carbonic acid, is called Carbonated Wafer, and has a very marked solvent power upon many Minerals, especially, on other carbonates, such as linestones, &c. Hence, the waters of all limestone regions are called hard, from the quantity of lime they contain. Carbonated water also acts upon other minerals much more powerfully than pure water. Its action is well shown in waters of mineral wells which frequently come from great depth and contain a great variety of mineral matter in solution. We know that these matters are largely held dissolved by the Carbonic acid contained in the water, because, when it is allowed to stand for some time exposed to air, the free Carbonic acid escapes, and much of the mineral water settles to the bottom, as a thick sediment.

Next in importance of the materials found in much natural water, and which greatly increases its destructive effects upon the rocks, are the alkalies — animonia, from the air, and potash and soda from certain minerals of the soil.

Water which contains the slightest trace of these alkalies has even a stronger power of dissolving minerals than Carbonated water. Thus all natural waters are constantly exerting their destructive power upon all exposed rocks, rapidly hastening their conversion into soil.

Though this solvent effect may, in any one case, seem to be very slight, yet when we remember the immense extent to which it has operated through numberless ages, we can easily understand the great results it has accomplished.

Water also operates upon some minerals in another manner, by uniting dii-ectly with them, and foi^mmg what are called hydrates. In their condition they are softer and more bulky, and hence, more easily reduced to soil. Many minerals are so composed that they are directly acted on, both by water and by the oxygen of the air, and are thus rapidly reduced to powder.

Action of Plant Life.

7th, Plant Life, Ever since its appearance up the earth, has exert ed a very important influence in the change of barren rocks into fertile soil.

We may study this action of plants under two heads: 1st. The effects produced by living plants themselves. 2d. The action of decaying vegetable matter.

8th, Effects of Living Plants. — "We may suppose that ever since their appearance upon the earth, plants have produced the same effects upon the earth's rocks, as we find them producing to day. This effect is nicely shown in the first growth of vegetation upon volcanic rocks. When lava flows in a melted condition down the side of a volcano, it cools into a

7 hard, barren, rock surface. For a long time, no plants can live upon it, except little microscopic plants, invisible to the naked eye, which receive Carbonic acid and ammonia directly from the air. After many years, the weathering action of the air will gather a very thin film of true soil on the hard surface of the lava, and slightly higher order of plants will begin to appear, mosses, &c., which, as they die, will increase by their remains the layer of soil. And so with such generation of plants, this change will proceed, until finally, the sterile rock will become a bed of fruitful soil capal)le of supporting large tress and of growing farm crops.

But in this process of soil forming, the plants have not acted simply by contributing their remains to the gathered soil, but with their tiny rootlets, they have attacked the solid rock itself, and assisted powerfully in its destruction.

This action of living plants upon the rocks may be owing, first to the moisture which all growing vegetation gathers and holds beneath it, and which is a great aid in the formation of soil; and, .tccmid to the action of the roots themselves. These are well known to have the power of attacking the rock fragments, dissolving and removing minute portions. Slabs of limestone are frequently found under the soil, with their surfaces covered with a netwoi'k of minute grooves or channels, each being a bed of a rootlet, which has eaten its way into the rock.

Experiments have been made, by taking pieces of polished stone, such as marble, dolomite, &c., and placing them in vessels under sand, and sowing seeds of grain above. The rootlets of the growing plants were seen to descend and spread over the stone below; and the latter when examined at the close of the season, were found with their surfaces softened and roughened, plainly reduced by the action of the rootlets. * * * * * * This ettectof living plants is, in many cases, probably owing to certain organic acids which the roots contain, by means of which they are able to dissolve and remove a minute portion of the minerals- with which they come in contact. When these minerals are partly powdered, as in the soil the effects of the plants roots are, of course, greatly increased with the increased amount of surrace exposed.

Though the matter, thus removed, may seem very small in the case of any one plant, yet if we consider the effect of the whole mass of plant growth which covers the earth, we see that living plants are a force of great importance in the conversion of rock into soil.

9th, Action op Decaying Vecetable Matter. — ''The action of plants on the rocks does not cease with their life. When a plant dies, the process of decay begins, and, if exposed to the air for a sufficient time, nothing will be left but the ash or the mineral matter which it contains. But it is very rarely that plant decay takes place in this manner. The dead remains generally gather under the gi'owing plants in a slowly increasing layer, and thus shut off from the free supply of air, the decay goes on very slowly, until this mass of vegetable matter becomes a black or brown compound, called humus.

The mold under forest trees, and sicamp muck, or prat, are good examples of hnmus; but it exists in nearly every soil. This humus assists in the destruction of rocks, and the production of soil for the following reasons. 1st, Because, in its decaying state, it is constantly absorbing moisture, and keeping all bodies around it damp. 2d, Its slow decay is constantly pi'oducing Carbonic acid, which is absorbed by the water of the soil, and thus acts powerfully upon the rock fragments below. 3d, Certain organic acids are also produced in decay, which act upon the rocks even more rapidly than does Carbonic acid. 4th, Finally, with the complete deeay of this humus, the mineral matter, which existed in the plants which formed it, is itself added to the earth from which it was taken."

10th, "All these forces which we have now studied, have together converted the sterile rocks of the earth's crust into fruitful soil; and when we consider that they have been at work for almost countless ages through the various periods of the earth's history we see they are abundantly sufficient to account for the layer of soil, which everywhere covers the earth's rock strata.

Nor is this process of soil forming yet completed. All of these forces are now in operation in diffei'ent states of activity, and fertile soil is continually forming all around us. thus maintaining the earth's producing power.''

11th, Now we are ready to learn something definite from the above considerations of surface soil.

A perfect soil adapted to grow ail kinds of crops contains the following mineral elements: Lime, phosphorus, sulphur in small quantities, salt in small quantities, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron and silicon. Now if the reader can train his mind to think of soil as he thinks of the above compound then this definite conception will assist you to grasp other great truths which will soon be considered.

Soil also contains two fertilizing elements, derived from the atmosphere, namely. Carbonic acid and ammonia.

Surface soil is always charged, at least several inches in depth, with the oxygen and nitrogen gasses of the atmosphere. Soil is charged with the gasses of water namely, oxygen and hydrogen.

Surface soil is composed of at least nine minerals and six gasses.

According to the above facts in reference to soil, the Nile valley of Egypt has a perfect surface soil. In north Africa rain falls abundantly on the several mountain ranges, thence it gathers into the several branches of the Nile, thence again, into the Nile proper; and in the great annual overflow, it fertilizes the whole valley, because it has brought down all of the nine minerals, in solution, and also in fine attenuated atoms, so that these several minerals are ready now to be taken up by the roots and rootlets of the farm crops.

The elements from the air, from the water, and the nine minerals make, b}^ nature's own pi'ocess, a perfect soil in Egypt. We should be greatly interested in this lesson for wherever man can assist nature and

9 bring together the same number of elements he has a perfect surface soil. Undoubtedly the Nile valley has produced more of the great farm crops than any other valley on the surface of the earth. Organic chemistry is the only science which can explain why this valley is so fertile. It must be on account of the fact that all the mineral elements necessary to grow a perfect crop are contained in its soil. Commit to memory the above facts then we are ready to classify surface soil and learn how to improve the same.

Classification of Soils.

SECTION IIT.

12th. The Soils. — The action of the rain fall, and the action of the atmosphere, and also the action of water and moving ice, as already described, have placed many a compound of minerals on or near the surface of the earth which we call soil.

When you examine soils of many sections you will find an infinite variety.

Soils may be classified as clayey gravel, or gravelly clay, also as sandy clay or clayey sand; also as clayey loam or loamy clay, the soils ai'e also called heavy, light, rich, poor, &c.

This variety seems rather lenghty; but soils can for all of the above variety be classified. Soils may be known by their ioVmation, by their composition, by their physical properties and by theHMDQsition.

First by their Formation.

13th, Sedent.vrv Soils, — When rocks do not get moved away from where the laws of nature made them but do get decomposed into soils such soils are called sedentary. Nearly all the high hills of Kansas are composed of sedentai'y or stationary soils.

14th, Transported Soils. — Says William K. Kedzie, "Transported soils are those which have been carried into a considerable distance from the rock layers from which they were formed. They are of three kinds, <h-ift. alluvial and colluvial soils."'

15th, Drift Soils. — ''These have been formed by the actions of gla" ciers and were brought down during the glacial epoch."

18th. Alluvial Soils. — "Are those which have been formed by the action of running water, generally over the valleys, or hotfoms of streams."

17th. Colluvial Soils. — ''These may consist of either drift or alluvial matter; but they alwaj's contain a quantity of sharj) angular i-ock fragments, showing either that they have not been transported far. or else, that thev are a mixture of sedentary soils with drift alluvium."

Soils May be Knovv^n by their Composition.

''The great mass of soils may. from their composition, be divided into seven classes which from a scientitic point of view, are neither distinct nor clearly dePned; but which answer the purpose of a practical application."

By this classification, then, wc have gravelly, sandy, clayey, loamy and calcareous soils, marl and peat.

18th, Gravelly Soils: — "Are those containing an abundance of small stones or gravel. The value of a gravelly soil depends not only on the general size or coarseness of the pebbles, but also upon the nature of the mmeral which composes them. A pure, coarse, quartz gravel would be almost utterly barren and useless. But when the gravel pebbles contain other minerals, such as feldspar or limestone, we may have produced a soil of great fertility."

19th, "Sandy Soils: — A soil to be called sandy must consist of at least ninety per cent sand, and sandy soil may be rich or poor, according to the kind of mineral contained in the sand."

20th, "Clayey Soils — are those consisting mostly of fine adhesive matter, generally clay. These soils are heavy and sticky when wet. Pure clays are poor soils. Their various colors, yellow, red, brown, etc., are owing to the oxide of iron which they contain. Many soils are called clayey which contain no clay at all."

21st, "Loamy Soils embrace all grades of soil between clay and sand. Loams makes the greater portion of our more valuable farming lands."

22nd, Calcareous or Lime Sori.s — "Are those of which the carbonate of lime forms a large proportion. They are known from the fact that when any acid, such as vinegar is poured over them, they bubble violently from the escape of cai'bonic acid gas. Many Kansas soils contain enough lime to be properly called calcareous soils. When mixed with other materials, these soils are called calcareous sands, clays, or loams, according to the nature of the material."

23rd, Marls are mixtures, in about equal parts of finely divided claj' and carbonate of lime. Slxll marl is nearly pure carbonate of lime.

24th, Peat is partially decayed vegetable matter, produced by the slow decay of plants under water.

Soils are Classified by their Physical Properties.

Again soils may be divided into heiny and Ufjht soils; but, as these words are not here used in their ordinary sense, this division requires some explanation. By heavy soils are meant, not those which have weight, but those which are so compacted in their structure that they strongly resist the movement of the plow through them, and hence are hard and heavy to cultivate. And on the other hand, by light soils are meant those which are so light and porous in their texture that they can be lightly and easily cultivated.

Soils are Known by their Position.

25th, Surface Soil: — "By the surface soil is meant that portion ordinarily stirred by the plow, and penetrated by the rain and roots of crops."

26th, Sub Soil: — "By the sub soil is meant that soil layer immediately beneath the surface or active soil."

27th, Hard Pan: — "This is the hard compact layer wholly beneath the subsoil." In the condition of hardpan, the soil is really returning to the condition of I'ock.

The Farnn Soils of Kansas.

Section IV

28th, Saj'S the above author, Professor Kedzie, "The general surface of Kansas is a rolling prairie; but it is an undoubted fact that the prairie surface is slowly decreasing, while the timbered areas are slowly increasing in extent. Th3 farm soils of Kansas, while in many respects similar to those of the surrounding states, yet present some distinct and peculiar features. The soil of this region was probably, in part at least, of drift origin, but this has since been very greatly changed in its character by the action of water, so that little of its true drift nature remains. As we have already learned, the bowlders or hardheads of the glacial drift are only found in comparatively small numbers, scattei'ed over the northeastern part of the state."

29th, Bluff Soil: — The soil of the bluff formation occupies the eastern portion of the state along the Missouri river, and is very marked and peculiar in its nature. It is the early accumulation of the Missouri river.

30th, Low Bottom: — "We have in Kansas many rivers and considerable low bottom lands, which are very rich, and in some cases many feet deep. When these are protected horn overflow they will form some of the richest farms in the state. This soil has all the mineral matter necessary for the growth of a crop, and is also rich in organic matter. This soil has the capacity to resist the injurious (>ffects of drought."

81st. Second Bottom: — "The soil of this class include the large areas of farming lands extending along the next terrace above the low bottoms. They were formed in the same manner as the latter, but at an earlier

12 pei'iod, when the rivers covered a much broader and deeper bed than at present. The second bottom soils malce up the greater part of the best farm lands of our state."

32d, High Prairie: — This class of soils includes the high rolling uplands of our state covering much of its central and western portions. These soils are the result of the decomposition of the rocks whei'e each variety of soil is found. Nearly all high prairie soil is of local origin.

These soils have their origin in the reduction of the rocks of carboniferous and cretaceous formation of the state. Generally it will be found, in any locality, that the upland soil has, as the basis of its composition, the same materials as the rock strata of the neighborhood. The comparison of these local soils with the rock strata from which they have been derived, will always be found a very interesting study.

33d, Special Characteristics of Kansas Soils: — The soils of Kansas, in general, are well known as among the most fertile and productive in the United States, and are specially remarkable for two reasons:

1st. Their power to resist drought.

2d. Their great fertility under continued and exhausti^ve cropping.

Relations of Soils to Crops.