Descriptive general chemistry

Preface

This book has been prepared to meet the requirements of the very short course in General Chemistry taught to the Cadets of the Military Academy.

The matter embraced is the result of more than sixty years' selection and sifting" made in the effort to secure that most essential and important for this course. The arrangement adopted is that which long experience and careful consideration have shown to accomplish the best results in the time available for the study of the subject.

S. E. TILLMAN.

West Point, N. Y., June 15, 1897.

TABLE OK CONTENTS

ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY.

PAGES.

Introductory remarks, Table of Elements 5-7

Laws of fixed proportions and multiples 8-9

Atomic theory 9-11

Chemical notation and nomenclature 11-17

Chemical reactions and conditions affecting affinity 17-22

Radicals, bases, acids, and salts m. 22-27

Equivalent and atomic weights 27-32

Law of Avogadro and determination of molecular weights 32-35

Atomic weights from Avogadro's law 35-39

Number of atoms in molecules, isomorphous relations 39-42

Volume relations of elements and compounds 42-44

Relations between specific heats and atomic weights 44-47

Valency 47-51

Atomic weights and other properties of elements 51-52

Stochiometry '. 52-56

NON-METALS.

Oxygen and ozone 57-62

Hydrogen 62-67

Nitrogen and atmospheric air 07-71

Water and hydrogen peroxide 71-82

Carbon and its different forms S3-90

Compounds of carbon and oxygen 90-97

Hydrocarbons (methane, acetylene, ethylene) 97-100

Combustion and flame 100-110

Silicon and boron 110-113

Compounds of hydrogen and nitrogen 113-117

Compounds of nitrogen and oxygen 117-122

Chlorine and hydrochloric acid 122-125

Bromine, iodine and fluorine 125-133

Sulphur 133-136

Hydrogen sulphide and oxides of sulphur 136-142

Sulphuric acid, sulphates and other sulphur acids 142-149

Selenium and tellurium 149-150

Phosphorus, oxides and oxy-aeids of phosphorus 151-155

Arsenic and its non-metallic compounds 155-158

Argon and helium 158

METALS.

Potassium and its compounds 159-166

Sodium and its compounds 166-174

Ammonium and itscompounds 174-177

Barium and its compounds 177-178

Calcium and its compounds 178-184

Magnesium 184-185

Zinc and its compounds 186-190

Aluminum and its compounds 190-195

Iron, its reduction, metallurgy and important compounds 195-220

Cobalt, nickel, manganese, chromium 220-222

Molybdenum, tungsten, uranium, bismuth and antimony 223-224

Tantalum, niobium and vanadium 224

Tin and its reduction 224-227

Titanium, zirconium, thorium, germanium, cerium 227

Lead, its reduction and important compounds 227-237

Copper, its reduction and important compounds 237-245

Silver, its reduction and important compounds 245-252

Mercury, its reduction and important compounds 252-257

Platinum and other metals of the same group 257-260

Gold, its metallurgy and important compounds 260-266

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

Chemistry of the carbon compounds 267-268

Classification of carbon compounds 268-270

Structural and rational formula? 270-271

Isomerism and polymerism 271

Unsaturated hydrocarbons 275

Acetylene series 276

Benzene series 276

Terpenes 277

Camphors, resins, balsams 278

Caoutchouc, India rubber 279

Guttapercha 282

Alcohols 282

Acetic acid 289

Acetates... : 291

Vegetable acids 292

Ethers 295

Cyanogen and compounds 296

Phenols 297

Carbohydrates 298

Vegetable colors 305

Albuminous substances 306

Alkaloids 308

APPLICATIONS OF CHEMISTRY.

Calorific value 311

Calorific intensity 312

Glass making 314

Pottery manufacture 318

Explosives 322

Manufacture of coal gas 337

Alcoholic beverages 343

Beer making 343

Wine making 345

Distilled liquors 348

Bread making 348

Fixed oils v 352

Manufacture of soap 353

Manufacture of leather 355

Preparation of cheese 359

ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY.

The science of chemistry has for its object the study of the nature and properties of all kinds of matter and endeavors to classify the changes which matter undergoes. Nearly all substances accessible to man are of a compound nature, and may be decomposed or separated into simpler forms of matter, these simpler forms being" generally very different from the original substances — thus, water is a compound substance and may be separated into its constituents which are gaseous bodies, oxygen and hydrogen. Common salt is a compound, one of its constituents being a white solid and the other a yellowish colored gas.

Those substances which thus far have not been separated into simpler forms of matter are called elementary substances or simply elements. The terms chemical affinity, chemical attraction and force of affinity, have been used to designate that force by virtue of which substances enter into combinations and form compounds. The compounds which are formed under the influence of affinity generally have properties entirely different from those of their constituents.

The force of affinity must be clearly distinguished from other forces exerted between all descriptions of matter, such as cohesion, which binds together the individual particles of the same body, and adhesion which designates the attraction existing between the particles of different bodies, as the adhesion of a liquid to glass; other effects are also observed which come under the head of molecular actions. From all these, chemical attraction is distinguished by the complete change of character which follows its action; it might be defined as that property of matter by virtue of which new bodies are generated. This property of matter is concerned in all chemical changes, and chemistry may be defined as the science which investigates the relations ivliicli affinity establishes betiveen bodies, determines the laivs governing its action, and examines the character and constitution of the substances which result from its operation. Chemical changes permanently affect the properties of bodies, and physical do not.

There are at present recognized seventy-two elementary bodies bnt only sixty-two of this number have been obtained in the free state. The existence of the others is established from spectroscopic indications and from an examination of their compounds. Of the total number fifty-six are usually classed as metallic and the others as non-metallic. This division is in part arbitrary since the divisions graduate into each other. The accompanying table classifies the elements as above stated, the most important being distinguished by heavier type and italics.

These substances present every variety of physical character, state of aggregation, etc., some are solid, some liquid and some gaseous ; some are light, others heavy, some occur in the free state and others only in combination. About sixteen elements make up ninety-nine hundredths of all known matter.

Table of Elementary Bodies, with Their Symbols and Atomic Weights.

Metals,

Isolated.

NAME.

SYMBOL.

ATOMIC WEIGHT.

NAME.

SYMBOL.

ATOMIC WEIGHT.

Aluminium,

Al.

27.0

Magnesium,

Mg.

24.0

Antimony,*

Sb.

120.0

Manganese,

Mn.

54.0

Barium,

Ba.

137.4

Mercury,

Hg.

200.0

Bismuth,*

Bi.

208.9

Molybdenum,

Mo.

95.5

Cadmium,

Cd.

112.0

Nickel,

Ni.

58.0

Caesium,

Cs.

132.6

Osmium,

Os.

198.5

Calcium,

Ca.

40.0

Palladium,

Pd.

105.7

Cerium,

Ce.

140.4

Platinum,

Pt.

194.4

Chromium,

Cr.

52.0 .

Potassium,

K.

39.1

Cobalt,

Co.

58.9

Rhodium,

Rh.

104.0

Columbium (orNio-

Rubidium ,

Rb.

85.3 bium ) ,

Cb.

93.8

Ruthenium,

Ru.

104.2

Copper,

Cu.

63.2

Silver,

Ag.

108.0

Didymium,

Di.

145.4

Sodium,

Na.

23.0

Gallium,

Ga.

70.0

Strontium,

Sr.

87.4

Glucinum (or Be-

Thallium ,

Tl.

203.7 ryllium ) ,

Gl.

9.0

Thorium,

Th.

233.4

Gold,

Au.

196.2

Tin,

Sn.

117.7

Indium,

In.

113.4

Titanium,

Ti.

48.0

Iridium,

Ir.

192.7

Tungsten,

W.

183.6

Iron,

Fe.

56.0

Uranium,

U.

239.8

Lanthanum,

La.

138.5

Vanadium,

V.

51.3

Lead,

Pb.

206.9

Zinc,

Zn.

65.0

Lithium,

Li.

7.0

Zirconium,

Zr.

89.4

Metals, not Isolated.

Decipium,

Dp.

159.0

Tantalum, f

Ta.

182.0

Erbium,

E.

166.0

Terbium,

Tr.

148.8

Holmium,

Ho.

162.0

Thulium,

—

170.4

Samarium,

Sm.

150.0

Ytterbium,

Yb.

89.1

Scandium,

Sc.

44.0

Yttrium,

Y.

172.8

Non=Metals.

Argon,

40.0

Iodine,