A text book on agriculture

CHAPTER I. Page

Agricultural Science, 13

Section 1. Agents productive of chemical changes in matter — Caloric, Attraction, Light, Electricity, . 13 " 2. Classification of Bodies, 20 " 3. Chemical Nomenclature, or System of Naming, 21 " 4. Laws of Chemical Combinations, , . 24

Chapter V

The Means possessed by Man for fertilizing the Soil and adapting it for the growth of any Crop which he may desire, ; 58

IV

CONTENTS.

Page.

The addition of Inorganic Substances as means of Fertilizing

the Soil, 64

Vegetable and Animal Substances as Fertilizers of the Soil, 65'

CHAPTER VIII. Practical Agriculture and Horticulture, . • . 105

Section 1. Germination of Seeds, .... 106

" 2. Influence of Caloric, Light and Electricity, . Ill

" 3. Description of Particular Grains, Grasses, &c, 115-

a 4. Rotation of Crops, 135

" 5. Connection of Farm Stock with Vegetation, . 141 44 6. Selection, Preservation, and Preparation of Seeds ; and the Propagation of Plants by Cuttings, Layers, Buds, Grafts, &c. &c, .

Conclusion,

142 146

Appendix

Insects Injurious to Vegetation, Cecidomyia Tritici, or wheat fly, Cecidomyia Destructor, or Hessian fly, Calandra Granaria, or wheat weevil, Phalaena Noctua Devastator, or cut-worm Gortyna Zea, or spindle-worm of corn, Elator Lineatus, or wire-worm, Galeruca Vittata, or striped cucumber bug.

CONTENTS,

Haltica Pubescens, or cucumber flea,

Aphides, or plant lice,

Clisiocampa Americana, or apple-tree caterpillar, Phalaena Vernata, or canker-worm, Saperda Bivittata, or apple-tree borer, Corpocapsa Pomonella, or apple worm, . Scolytus Pyri, or pear blight, Rhynchaenus Nenuphar, or plum weevil, iEgira Exitiosa, or peach borer, Clytus Pictus, or locust borer,

Currant-bush worm,

Artificial Manures,

Page.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Figure 1. Apparatus for forming Hydrogen, &c, " 2. A Crucible, ....

" 3. Glass Flask, ....

" 4. Test Glass, ....

" 5. Evaporating Dish,

PLATES.

Plate I. Cecidomyia Tritici in its various states, " II. Cecidomyia Destructor in its different states,

« III

Figure 1. Rhynchaenus Nenuphar on the Plum. " 2. Calandra Granaria.

" 3. Saperda Bivittata.

" 4. Clytus Pictus.

28 90 90 91 92

151 161 176

INTRODUCTION,

It is now universally conceded that no branch of business is susceptible of receiving greater benefit from science, than Agriculture ; and that such benefits may be actually received, it is equally apparent that the subject must be introduced as a regular study in all our common schools and academies ; for although special agricultural schools and model farms may be established here and there, and be productive of much good, yet the common or district schools and the local academical institutions must ever constitute the main reliance of the great mass of the youth of this country for the sum total of their education. Hence we think a legislative committee never uttered a truer sentiment than the following, taken from the report of the Committee on Agricultural Schools in the Legislature of 1847. In reference to the plan recommended by the Committee, the report says : f The plan alluded to is to encourage the study of agriculture in the Normal School, and in the academies and local institutions which

Vlll INTRODUCTION.

are already established and endowed in all parts of the State. We would also encourage its study in our best common schools."

It is well known that all the older class of scholars in our common schools, and many in the academies, spend a part of each year with their parents in labor on the farms. In this way they might be constantly testing by practice the principles they learn in the schools ; or, in the language of the Committee' " The school and the farm by this plan become mutual aids. The principles are acquired in the school, and the scholar becomes ambitious to test them in the fields; from which it would follow that the whole State, with its different soils and climate, becomes one great experimental farm, every intelligent farmer an intelligent experimentalist, every farm a model farm, and every farmer's son a teacher, or, at least, an earnest learner."

What a happy change would this make in the greatest and most important industrial pursuit of man ! And that the Committe referred to have recommended the only effectual plan for accomplishing so desirable a result, we think no man, after due reflection, will deny.

But the very first step in advancing the study of agriculture is the adoption of a text-book, suited to the condition of the schools.

INTRODUCTION. IX

To accomplish this object the State Agricultural Society offered a premium for the best work designed for this purpose. It was in answer to this call that the following work was written. But the time allowed by the Society was so short, that when the work was presented for examination, one of the most important chapters was left unfinished and entirely without the appendix. Notwithstanding, the examining committee decided the work to be the best presented, and awarded a small premium to the author. At the same time, the Society returned the several works presented to their authors, with the privilege of revising and completing the same and presenting them again, with such new competitors as might enter the field, at the end of the succeeding year. This work was accordingly completed and presented again ; but finding that it was the only one in the hands of the committee, it was withdrawn, the author not wishing to ask an award in a cours settlement.

Much pains have been taken to adapt, the present work to the actual wants of the schools. Hence it begins with the elementary principles of Natural Science, and- proceeds on in such a way that every step is calculated to make the succeeding one more easy.

The necessity of this will be apparent to every

X INTRODUCTION.

one acquainted with our schools ; for in them, probably not one scholar in a hundred, who ought to study agriculture, would have a previous knowledge of chemistry and natural philosophy. And yet almost every work published on the subject is written on the assumption that the reader is already a good chemical scholar. The only work which can be considered an exception to this remark, is Johnson's Catechism, which, though admirably adapted to the instruction of children, is really too brief and simple, to make a serious book of study in the hands of the older class of scholars in our schools.

The object of all study is two-fold, viz : to store the mind with facts, and to discipline it to serious thought, reflection, and investigation. To accomplish this we must be careful that our text-books on science are not too much diluted on the one hand, or too prolix and obscure on the other.

The author of the present work has aimed at a judicious medium, always endeavoring to present a clear exposition of principles, rather than a multiplication of simple facts ; being fully satisfied that if the learner really understands the object to be accomplished, he will seldom fail to find a way to accomplish it, suited to his circumstances.

From the very complimentary opinions expressed by those who have examined the work in manuscript,

INTRODUCTION. XI

and who are every way competent to judge, the author feels confident that it will be found well adapted to the present wants of the schools and the country.

For the materials constituting much of this work, the author is indebted to the writings of Sinclair, Chaptel, Davy, Liebig, Dumas, Johnson, Dana, Jackson, Gray, Gaylord, Hitchcock, the Geological Reports of this State, &c. &c. But frequent marginal references to authorities have purposely been omitted, as calculated rather to divert the attention of the student, than to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge.

N. S. DAVIS

New York , August 1st, 1847,

SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE.

Chapter I. Chemistry

Chemistry is thatscience which makes us acquainted with the composition and properties of bodies, and the changes which take place between the particles of matter at insensible distances from each other.

AGRICULTURAL SCfENCE.

Agricultural science is that department of the general science of chemistry which makes us acquainted with the composition and properties of soils and vegetables, and everything connected with the formation of the first, and the growth, maturity and uses of the second.

Sect. 1. Jlgents productive of Chemical Phenomena, or Changes in Matter.

All chemical phenomena, or, in other words, all changes in the condition of matter, are the result of the influence of one or the other of the following

What is Chemistry ? What is meant by Agricultural Science ? With what does Agricultural Science make us acquainted ?

14 CALORIC OR HEAT.

agents, viz caloric or heat, light, electricity and attraction. These are called imponderable bodies, because they possess no appreciable weight. By some chemists, they are considered as properties essential to all bodies ; while by others, they are regarded as separate substances, though too subtle to be recognized by the ordinary properties of other matter.

CALORIC OR HEAT.

Caloric is that principle or agent which gives the sensation of heat when applied to the hand or other sensible organ. Its great characteristic quality, is that of producing expansion in other bodies, by forcing their particles of matter farther from each other, and thereby increasing their bulk. It is by this power that caloric or heat converts ice into water, and water into vapor, or makes lead and iron melt. It is by this power of expanding other bodies, and thus enabling their particles to move more freely on each other, that it becomes an agent productive of chemical changes in matter.

Caloric exists in two states — one is called latent, or combined caloric, and exists in union with the particles of matter, being neither indicated by the thermometer, nor sensible to the touch ; the other is called free caloric, and is indicated both by the sense of feeling, and the mercury in the thermometer.

Another marked property of free caloric, is its tendency to maintain an equilibrium ; by which we mean its tendency to pervade all bodies equally.

What agents produce chemical changes in matter? What are these agents called ? Why ? Do all chemists agree as to the nature of these agents ? What are the two prevalent opinions concerning them ? What is caloric ? What is the prominent characteristic quality of caloric ? Tn what manner does it expand bodies? In what way does it become an agent productive of chemical changes in matter ? In how many states does caloric, exist ? What is latent caloric ? What is free caloric ?

ATTRACTION. 15

Thus, if we place a cold body in the vicinity of several warmer ones, the caloric will be constantly communicated from the warmer to the colder one, until they all become of precisely the same temperature. The influence of caloric or heat on vegetation, is very striking and important. This is seen not only by the changes of spring and autumn, but also by comparing the vegetation in warm or tropical regions with the colder parts of the earth.

ATTRACTION.

Attraction is the great antagonist force to caloric or heat ; for while the latter is constantly tending to force the particles of matter farther from each other, the former is as constantly tending to bring them together, so as to form solid and compound bodies.

There are three kinds of attraction, viz : cohesion, attraction of gravitation, and chemical attraction or affinity.

Cohesion. — Cohesion is that force by which particles of matter of the same kind are held together, forming a continuous bod)\ It is this kind of attraction which holds the different particles of a stone, or a piece of iron, or chalk, or wood together, in such a manner as to give it solidity and form. This kind of attraction takes place between the particles of matter of the same kind, and only when they are brought in contact with each other.

Attraction of Gravitation. — This is that power which, acting on matter in masses, causes bodies

What are the principal properties of free caloric ? Does caloric influence vegetation ? What seasons and parts of the earth strikingly illustrate this ? What is attraction ? What influence does it exert on matter ? How many kinds of attraction are there ? What is meant by cohesive attraction? Can you give some examples of cohesion ? What qualities does this kind of attraction impart to bodies ? Under what circumstances does cohesive attraction take placp ? What is meant by attraction of gravitation ?

16 AFFINITY.

placed at sensible distances from each other, to approach or fall together if left free to move. It is this power which causes bodies elevated in the air to fall to the earth. The attraction between the earth and the elevated body is mutual, but the earth being much the larger, causes all things near its surface to move towards it, unless hindered by some intervening obstacle.

It is the attraction of gravitation constantly exerted on all bodies on or near the earth's surface, which gives them what we call weight ; but as it acts on matter in masses, it seldom becomes productive of chemical changes ; and its full consideration belongs entirely to the natural philosopher.

Chemical Attraction, or Affinity, is that power which causes the particles of matter of different kinds to unite with each other, to form compound bodies. It is this kind of attraction which is the active agent in the production of nearly all the changes in the composition of bodies, which take place either in the laboratory of the chemist or in the great laboratory of nature. Chemical attraction, or affinity, is of three kinds, viz : simple affinity, single elective affinity, and double elective affinity.

Simple Affinity. — When two different particles of matter are presented to each other, as when we mix two substances held in solution by water, they combine to form a new substance. Thus if carbonic acid and lime are mixed, they unite and form carbonate of lime. This is called simple affinity.

Single Elective Affinity. — When two substances

What influence does it exert on bodies, and what quality does it impart to them ? Why is it not productive of chemical changes in matter? What is meant by chemical attraction or affinity? What influence does it exert on the composition of bodies ? How many kinds of affinity are there, and what are they called ? What is meant by simple affinity ? Can you give an example of this kind of affinity ? What is meant by single elective affinity ?

AFFINITY.

are mixed together, one of which is already compound, and one of its ingredients leaves it to join with the other body, it is called single elective affinity. Thus, if carbonate of lime is mixed with sulphuric acid, the lime forsakes the carbonic acid, and unites with the sulphuric acid to form sulphate of lime, leaving the carbonic free or uncombined.

Double Elective Affinity. — This takes place when two compound bodies are mixed together, and a mutual interchange of ingredients takes place. Thus if we bring in contact carbonate of lime and sulphate of soda in solution, the lime elects or unites with the sulphuric acid, while the soda goes to the carbonic ; and we obtain as a result, carbonate of soda and sulphate of lime. Thus making a double election or affinity.

This will be more readily understood by the following diagram : —

Carbonate of Soda.

Carbonate Carbonic acid. .Sulphuric acid.

of Lime.

Lime.

• Soda.

I. Sulphate of

Soda.

Sulphate of Lime.

J

The original compounds are placed on the outside of the brackets. The dotted lines indicate the interchange of ingredients ; and the names of the new compounds are placed one above and the other below the horizontal lines.

Hence we see, that affinity is not only the agent, or power, which causes the particles of matter of different kinds to unite, thereby forming compounds ; but it may also be made our most powerful

Give an example. What is meant by double elective affinity ? Give an example and explain the diagram.

18 LIGHT.

agent in effecting decompositions. For this purpose we have only to present to a compound body which we wish to decompose, another substance having a stronger affinity for some of the ingredients of the compound, than the others with which they are united. We have already given an example of this, in the case of single elective affinity. Another and more familiar one is that of the common sodapowders. There tartaric acid is added to a solution of carbonate of soda, which, by its superior affinity for the soda, it decomposes ; combining with the soda and setting the carbonic acid free, which rising rapidly through the solution in the form of gas, causes the effervescence. This agent or power is capable of extensive application in agriculture, in all its departments ; and especially in the preparation of manures, as we shall hereafter see.

LIGHT.

Light is that substance, power or property, which is being continually emitted from the sun, and from almost all burning bodies. Chemically considered, light is composed of, 1st, colors ; 2d, caloric or heat ; 3d, chemical rays. These different parts are easily shown by passing a ray of light through a simple prism. The warming influence of the sun is entirely owing to the caloric that accompanies the light which it emits.

The powerful influence which light exerts over the growth of vegetables, is seen by comparing the vegetables grown in dark cellars, with those of the

How can affinity be made the active agent in effecting decompositions ? Can you explain the changes that take place in a glass of soda water ? What is light ? What is an ordinary ray of light composed of? How can the different parts be shown ? To what is the warming influence of the sun owing ? What is the difference between vegetables grown in the light, and those in the dark ?

ELECTRICITY. 19

same kind in the open light of day. The former are pale, sickly and insipid, while the latter are green, rank, healthy and pungent.

ELECTRICITY.

Electricity is an extremely subtle agent, which pervades all matter, and moves with inconceivable velocity. It is developed or made sensible to us in various ways — 1st, by friction, as when we rub a piece of glass or amber with a piece of silk, which is the ordinary mode ; 2d, by chemical action, as when two different metals are immersed in a very dilute acid, which is called voltaic electricity or galvanism. It is the same agent, circulating around a bar of iron at right angles with the bar, which develops the phenomena of magnetism.

Electricity exists in two states — the one called positive and the other negative. One theory supposes that there are two fluids, one positive and the other negative. Another supposes that positive and negative are merely relative terms; the positive signifying that a body is charged with more than its natural quantity of electricity, and the negative less. Be this as it may, the fact is certain that whenever two bodies are brought near each other, both of which are charged with either positive or negative electricity, they repel each other; but if one is charged with positive and the other with negative electricity, they will mutually attract each other.

Electricity, like caloric, constantly seeks to maintain an equilibrium throughout all nature. Hence,

What is electricity ? How can electricity be excited ? What is the connection between electricity and magnetism ? In how many states does electricity exist ? What are they called ? How are these two states explained ? When do bodies attract, and when repel each other ? In what respect is electricity like caloric ?

20 CLASSIFICATION OF BODIES.

whenever it becomes accumulated in excess in any one point, as in the clouds for example, if there is a metallic rod, or other good conductor, elevated from the earth to the vicinity of the clouds, the excess passes silently down the rod to the earth ; but if there is no such conductor, it breaks through the air with the noise of thunder, and emits a vivid flash of light, which we call lightning.

Some chemists have attempted to explain the whole phenomena of chemical affinity and combinations, on the principle of electrical attraction and repulsion ; and, certainly, not without some show of plausibility, as we shall learn more fully when we come to speak of the effects of electricity on vegetation.

Sect. 2. Classification of Bodies.

All bodies in nature are divided into two classes, viz : simple or elementary, and compound. A simple body is one which has not yet been separated into two or more ingredients. A compound body is one made up of two or more simple bodies. There are at present known only fifty-five separate substances, called simple or elementary bodies. By the various combinations of these, all the various substances in nature are formed, whether organized or inorganic ; whether animal, vegetable, or mineral.

Thirteen of these are called non-metallic, viz : oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, iodine, bromine, fluorine, boron,

What takes place when it becomes accumulated in excess on one point? Is electricity radiated like caloric, or only conducted along those bodies called conductors ? Are electricity and lightning the same ? How are all bodies divided ? What is a simple body ? What is a compound body ? How many simple bodies are known to chemists ? Are all vegetable, animal, and inorganic substances made up of combinations of these ? How are simple bodies divided ? Can you name the non-metallic ? •

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 21

Of these, only oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine and silicon, of the non-metallic ; and aluminum, calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, sodium, of the metallic, are of any consequence in regard to practical agriculture. These are again divided, in reference to agriculture, into organic and inorganic elements. The first four, viz : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, being found in all vegetable and animal substances, are called organic, while all the rest are termed inorganic elements.

In this work, we shall confine ourselves to such a description of these, and their compounds, as is necessary to understand the following chapters. Before doing this, however, it is necessary to give some explanation of chemical terms.

Sect. 3. Chemical Nomenclature, or System of Naming.

The present system of naming substances, invented by Lavoisier, has done more to facilitate the study of chemistry than any other one thing. It is so

Can you name those of both classes which are particularly interesting- to the agriculturist ? How are these divided in reference to agriculture ? Which are called organic, and why ? What is the system of naming substances called ? Who invented the chemical nomenclature ? 2*

22 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE.

arranged that the name of every compound body is made, as far as possible, to indicate its composition. Thus oxygen, chlorine, sulphur, &c, combine with the metals, and form substances which are called oxides, chlorides, sulphurets — as oxide of iron, chloride of iron, or sulphuret of lead.

But oxygen or chlorine may unite with the same metal in mote than one proportion, forming one, two, three or more compounds. These are distinguished from each other by prefixing the Greek numerals, prot, deut, trit and per : thus, there may be a prot-oxide, deut-oxide, trit-oxide and per-oxide of iron ; the first signifying the lowest quantity of oxygen, and the last the highest. And the same of the proto-chlorides, deuto-chlorides, proto-sulphuret, &c.

But perhaps no names appear more frequently in chemistry than acids, alkalies, salts and base. By acid, we mean any substance which will change the vegetable colors to red, and unite with an alkali, oxide, or other base, to form a neutral compound possessing properties essentially different from either of the ingredients which enter into its composition, and which compound is called a salt.

Most of the acids are formed by the combination of oxygen with some other simple body, as carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. And tbey all take their name from the substance with which the oxygen combines. Thus we have carbonic, nitric, sulphuric, phosphoric acids, &c. But oxygen com-

On what principle is it formed ? When oxygen, chlorine, or sulphur combines with the metals, what are the compounds called ? If these substances combine with any given metal in more than one propoetion, how are the compounds distinguished from each other ? Which prefix indicates the highest and which the lowest degree of oxidation, &c. ? What names appear very often in chemistry ? What is an acid ? How are most acids formed ? What determines the name of each ?

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 23

bines with some substances in more than one proportion, forming two, three or four different compounds possessing acid properties. These are distinguished by (he terminations ous and ic, and the prefix hypo. Thus the two acid compounds of phosphorus and oxygen are called phosphorous and phosphoric acids; the first containing the least and the last the most oxygen. Again, we have four acid compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, viz : the hypo-nitrous, the nitrous, the hypo-nitric, and the nitric acids.

Chlorine also combines with some substances, forming acid compounds. Thus chlorine and hydrogen unite and form the chloro-hydroic acid, a compound long well known by (he common name of muriatic acid. But these compounds are distinguished by the same terminal letters as when oxygen enters into their composition.

The term alkali is applied to those compound substances which possess the property of changing the vegetable blue colors to green, and uniting with acids to form neutral compounds, termed salts. The principal alkalies are potassa, or potash, soda, ammonia, and lime. This last, however, together with magnesia and manganese, are generally called alkaline earths. But as we have acids terminating in ous and ic, so the neutral compounds, or salts, which they form with alkalies or oxides, terminate in ite

Does oxygen combine with other substances in more than one proportion to form acids ? How are they distinguished from each other ? How many acid compounds of oxygen and nitrogen are there ? How are they distinguished from each other ? Let the pupil write them on the black-board, and point out the relative proportion of oxygen in each. Does chlorine ever form acid compounds with other bodies ? How are they distinguished ? What is the composition and proper name of muriatic acid ? What is meant by an alkali ? Can you name the principal alkalies ? What i9 the compound formed by the union of an acid with an alkali called ? How do you distinguish a salt formed by an acid terminating in ous, from one in ic 1

24 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS.

and ate. Thus sulphurous acid and soda form sulphite of soda, and sulphuric acid and soda form sulphate of soda. And so of all the other similar compounds with acids.

Sometimes the same acid combines with the same base, in more than one proportion. These are distinguished by prefixing the term bi to the second compound ; as the carbonate and bi-carbonate of soda, &c. The word base is used in a general sense, to signify any alkali, earth, or metallic oxide which is capable of combining with an acid. And a salt is any neutral compound of an acid with a base. Thus carbonate of soda is a salty the base of which is soda.

Sect. 4. Laws of Chemical Combinations.

1st. The composition of every compound substance is fixed and invariable. The ingredients are not only always the same, but they are always combined in the same relative proportion. Thus oxygen and hydrogen combine in the proportion of one of hydrogen, by weight, to eight of oxygen, to form water; and in no other proportion can water be formed. The addition of one proportion more of oxygen, makes a liquid of a highly corrosive and poisonous nature.

2d. The relative quantities in which bodies unite, may be expressed in proportional numbers. Thus eight parts of oxygen combine with fourteen of nitrogen, sixteen of sulphur, thirty-six of chlorine, and six of carbon. Not only do these various substances

When the same acid combines with the same base in more than one proportion, how arc the compounds distinguished ? Write an example. What is a base ? What is the first law of chemical combinations ? What is the composition of water ? Do the ingredients or elements of any given compound always unite in the same relative proportion ? What is the second law of combinations ? Give an example.

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS. 25

hold this relative proportion when combined with oxygen, but they remain the same when they combine with any other body, or with each other. The same law applies to compound bodies. Thus water is composed of oxygen 8 and hydrogen 1, therefore its combining number for all substances is 9. Sulphuric acid is composed of one proportion of sulphur 16, and three proportions of oxygen 24, hence its combining number is 40. And so in all other compounds.

3d. When one body A combines with another body B, for example, in more than one proportion, the quantities of A in the second, third, and fourth compounds, will be simple multiples of the first by a whole number. Thus nitrogen combines with oxygen in the ratio of one proportion 14, to 8, 16, 24 and 32 of oxygen. There are a few substances which apparently form an exception to this rule, but they are immaterial to our present purpose.

4th. Gases or airs unite with each other by volume, in the simple ratio of 1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3, &c. Thus 1 cubic inch of oxygen will combine with 2 cubic inches of hydrogen to form water, but never 1 cubic inch to 1|.